Jewish History from Abraham to the 22nd century - Part 2 of 3

Jewish History from Abraham to the 22nd century - Part 2 of 3

C. 1750 JEWISH POPULATION OF POLAND

Just prior to its division between Russia, Prussia, and Austria, Poland's Jewish population reached 430,000 (excluding Eastern Galicia). In Lithuania there were 157,300 Jews.

1750 MULAY AL-YAZID (Morocco)

Became sultan of Morocco after rebelling against his father and brother. The Jews under his father Mulay Mohammad III (1710 – 1790) were used as negotiators and bankers. Al-Yazid (1750 –1792) being refused a loan by the Jews during his insurgency, swore vengeance. The Jewish community of Tetuán was attacked, with the richer Jews being tied to the tails of horses and dragged through the city. Many others were murdered and the women raped. This was followed by attacks on other communities, including Fez and Meknès and Marrakesh. Jews, who had been loyal to his father, were hanged by their feet for 15 days until they died. The Spanish consul, Solomon Hazzan, was accused of betrayal and killed as were hundreds of Muslims loyal to his father or brother. Al- Yazid (1750-1792) died of a battle wound before completing a list of notable Jews and Muslims to be executed.

1750 April 17, FREDERICK II OF PRUSSIA (Germany) 

Issued a general patent to the Jews that limited them to commerce and industry. Jews were no longer to be considered dependents of the king but rather of the State. Jews, on the one hand, were encouraged to be part of the State and its economy, while on the other hand they were still second class citizens who were divided into two classes - privileged and protected. An "enlightened monarch", Frederick wrote his Political Testament (published in 1752) in which he described Jews as dangerous, superstitious, and backward.

1751 June 14, POPE BENEDICT XIV

Sent an encyclical (a papal letter) Aquo Primum to the heads of the Polish clergy. In it Benedict(1675-1758) praised their efforts in combating Jewish " domination." He further encouraged them not to lease any land, or loan any money to Jews. Benedict called the Jews “cruel task makers" and urged that no Jew be in any position to give an order to a Christian including as an employer.

1751 December 15, PROBE TE MEMINISSE

Pope Benedict XIV stressed the necessity to control the Jews and encourage conversion. He delineated the situations where a child (even under the age of seven) can be baptized without parental agreement. At seven year of age, he is considered having attained the age of reason (see 1683). Although Benedict decreed that forced baptisms were illegal, nonetheless they would be binding, and any "backsliding" would be considered heresy.

1753 NATURALIZATION ACT (England)

This legislation allowed Jews to own land and to "prefer bills in parliament without receiving the sacrament." The enactment was protested by mobs and pamphleteers calling it the end of Christianity in England and giving lie to the prophesies of the New Testament which implies that Jews must wander the earth. In the end, it was repealed the next year and was only re-enacted over a hundred years later in 1858.

1753 May 26, ZHITOMIR (Russia)

Under the influence of Bishop Solik of Kiev the castle court sentenced 33 Jews to death for the "ritual murder" of a Christian child. The entire evidence was based on the "confessions" of the innkeeper and his wife which had been made after being tortured (although they later retracted their statements). Thirteen of those Jews were released upon converting. Many others, including the local rabbi, were quartered alive. One couple converted on the spot and were granted a beheading.

1754 - 1800 SOLOMON MAIMON (Silesia-Lithuania) 

Inspired by Maimonides' Moreh Nevuchim (Guide to the Perplexed), he adopted the name Maimon, abandoned religion, embraced philosophy, and embarked on the life of a wanderer. During his lifetime, he met with some of the greatest minds of his day, including Moses Mendelssohn. Among his works are a critique on Kant and a commentary on Maimonides entitled Givat Hamoreh (Hill of the Teacher). He correctly predicted that "the Christians won't say Mass and the Jews won't say Kaddish at my grave." His autobiography (Lebensgeschichte) provided important insights into 18th Century Polish Jewry, particularly the Hasidic Movement.

C. 1755 DEBORA AND RICCA FUNARI ( Rome )

Two young girls ages 6 and 12 were taken by their converted uncle to be baptized. Although the younger girl was clearly underage, she was not returned to her father, but kept in the House of Catechumens (see 1543), and "educated" until she was old enough to declare her desire to convert.

1755 January 15, LISBON (Portugal) 

Jeronimo Jose Ramos, a merchant from Braganza, was the last known Jew to be burned alive for secretly practicing Judaism. He had escaped the previous Auto da Fe in September of 1752.

1755 February 22, BEATIFICATION OF ANDREW OF RINN aka Andreas Oxner (Germany)

Pope Benedict XIV issued his bull of Beatus Andreas which beatified Andreas Oxner who in 1462 was allegedly murdered by Jews in a ritual murder in Rinn near Innsbruck. This helped spread the anti-Semitic legends and performances which were based on the writings of Hippolytus Guarinoni ( 1651) . They were performed until 1954. Although the cult of the "Child of Judenstein" was proscribed in 1985, yearly pilgrimages are still made to the site.rnrn

1756 - 1810 ABRAHAM GOLDSMID (Holland-England)

Financier. He (together with his children) was very active in the Great Synagogue and in trying to achieve full emancipation for British Jewry. They were friends of Lord Nelson and the Duke of Essex (son of King George III).

1756 JEWISH COUNCIL AT SATANOW (Podolia, Poland)

Convened to ratify a ban against the Frankists.

1757 February 18, AVIGNON (France) 

A local townsman, walking through the ghetto on a dark night, stumbled and fell into a well near the synagogue. Fortunately, he was not hurt. The day was declared a local holiday for generations. The rationale for this was that had the townsman drowned so close to the synagogue, the Jewish community would have been accused of complicity in his death.

1757 November 13, BURNING OF THE TALMUD IN KAMENETS-PODOLSKI (Poland) 

Jacob Frank, a follower of the false Messiah Shabbetai Zevi, had begun his own movement which emphasized the Kabbalah and denigrated the Talmud. His practices, some of which were sexual in nature, were condemned by the local Rabbinate. In revenge, he arranged a dispute in Lvov (June 20) between himself and the local Jewish leaders. Bishop Nicholas Dembowski, who presided over the disputation, ruled in favor of Frank and ordered all copies of the Talmud found to be dragged through the streets and burned. Around 1000 copies of the Talmud were destroyed. Within a few years, many of Frank's followers converted to Christianity.

1758 JACOB ZELIG (Poland) 

After a series of blood libels, he was sent to Rome by the Jewish community to convince Pope Benedict XIV to publish a bull against the accusations. Cardinal Ganganelli (Clement XIV) who received, it wrote an unequivocal condemnation of the libels and asked the Holy See to intervene in Poland to stop the accusations.

1759 QUEBEC (Canada - New France)

With the British conquest of Quebec, Jews were allowed to settle there. Two of the first Jews were Aaron Hart and Samuel Jacobs. Jacobs arrived within a month of the British conquest. Abraham Gradis was thought to have been the first Jew to live in Quebec while under French rule, although in reality, he had never set foot there. It was actually his firm which played an important role in helping the French colonial empire in North America.

1759 - 1841 (25 Tamuz 5601) MOSES BEN ZVI TEITELBAUM (Hungary)

Hasidic rabbi, scholar and founder to the dynasty of Hasidic rabbis in Hungary and Galicia. Teitelbaum, a student of the Seer of Lublin, was one of the first to spread Hasidism to Hungary. His two most famous works are the Hasidic classic Yismach Moshe (Moses Rejoices) and Heshiv Moshe (Moses Responds), a responsa.

1759 January, LOUISIANA COLONY (North American Colonies)

Despite what was known as the Louisiana Black Code, there were at least 5 Jewish families living there. The law denied residence to Jews or the practice of any religion except Catholicism in the territory.

1759 October 31, SAFED (Eretz Israel) 

A massive earthquake destroys much of the city killing 2000 people with 190 Jews among the dead.

1760 October 23, ENGLISH PRAYER BOOK

The first English translation of the Prayer book (Siddur) was published in England.

1760 December 14, BOARD OF DEPUTIES OF BRITISH JEWS (England) 

Was founded. It is the oldest Jewish communal organization in Great Britain. All Jews, whether Ashkenazi or Sephardi (and later the Reform) could elect their deputies, who would in turn represent the entire community. Membership was originally based on synagogues, but much later other organizations were added.

1761 - 1837 (13 Tishrei 5598) AKIVA EIGER (Posen, Germany)

Renowned halachic and talmudic scholar, Eiger was one of the leading talmudists in the first half of the nineteenth century and a strong opponent of the Reform movement. His devotion to the sick, at risk to his own life during a cholera epidemic, earned him the recognition of Frederick William III of Prussia.

1762 CARPENTRAS (FRANCE)

Semé the young son of the local Rabbi Elijah Crémieu, was forcibly baptized. Despite appeals to Pope Clement XIII, he was not returned to his family. Carpentras is known for having the oldest active synagogue France.

1762 - 1839 (25 Tishrei 5600) MOSES SOFER (The Chasam Sofer) (Pressburg) 

Wrote a voluminous collection of responsa called Chidushai Teshuvot Moshe Sofer (Novella and Responsa of Moses Sofer). It was divided into four parts containing 1377 responsa. He was a strong supporter of rigid orthodoxy, especially pertaining to change in synagogue ritual.

1762 March 11, RHODE ISLAND (North American Colonies) 

Although considered more liberal than other states, and despite the fact that a few Jews had previously been granted citizenship, the court refused to grant it to Aaron Lopez and Isaac Eliezer, stating that "no person who is not of the Christian religion can be admitted free to this colony". Lopez was granted citizenship by Massachusetts and the sentence "upon the true faith of a Christian" was excluded from the oath. Lopez was probably the first Jew to be granted citizenship in Massachusetts.

1762 December 4, CATHERINE II (1729-1796) (Russia) 

Issued a proclamation allowing all foreigners to travel and to settle in Russia - “Kromye Zhydov ("except the Jews"), Within 8 years Russia acquired hundreds of thousands of Jews due to the partition of Poland.

1763 June 4, EZEKIEL SOLOMONS (North American Colonies)

After opening a trading post two years earlier, he was taken prisoner by the Indians. During this uprising in the Mackinac territory that was known as "Pontiac's conspiracy" at least three other Jewish traders were captured and ransomed. This territory later became the state of Michigan.

1763 December 2, CONGREGATION YESHUAT YISRAEL (Newport, Rhode Island, USA)

Dedicated its synagogue, now known as the Touro synagogue, after its first hazzan, Isaac Touro. Built with the help of Isaac Hart, and designed by Peter Harrison, it is the oldest synagogue still standing in the United States.

1764 - 1847 HENRIETTA HERZ (Germany)

One of Mendelssohn's brightest followers. Her home became the meeting place (salon) of the most distinguished intellectuals. She was baptized after her mother's death.

1764 IMMIGRATION OF HASIDIM TO TIBERIAS

Led by Rabbi Menahem Mendel of Peremyshlyany (b. 1728). He was accompanied by Nahman of Horodenka the paternal grandfather of Nahman of Breslav. This is the first organized Hasidic Aliyah, and began a period of a immigration which would expand to over 300 people over the next number of years.

1764 June 1, STANISLAV PONIATOVSKY (Poland) 

The last King of Poland, with the backing of the Polish Sejm, abolished the Council of the Four Lands and imposed a poll tax (see 1520).

1764 July 5, - 1876 DANIEL MENDOZA (England)

Known as the "father of scientific boxing". Mendoza was proud of his Jewish heritage and billed himself as "Mendoza the Jew". He became one of England's greatest boxing champions and the first boxer to win the patronage of the Prince of Wales.

1765 - 1809 BEREK JOSELEWICZ (Poland)

Colonel of the Polish armed forces. Joselewicz joined Kosciuszko in the Polish uprising and the Napoleonic Wars. He believed in the importance of having Jews take part in the revolution. Together with Joseph Aronowicz, they received permission from Kosciuszko to establish a Jewish Unit. His famous call in Yiddish for support elicited hundreds of volunteers. Five hundred were eventually accepted, many of whom died in the insurrection.He died in a Calvary charge in the war against Austria near the city of Kotzk.

1765 October 27, PORTUGAL 

The last "public" Auto da Fe (Act of Faith) was held. The latest recorded Auto da Fe in Portugal was held in 1791 and the last in Valencia, Spain was held in 1826.

1766 - 1850 AARON (ALBERT) ALEXANDRE (Germany-England)

Chess master and author of Encyclopedie des Echecs (1837) which explains all the rules of the game in four languages. In another book entitled Collection des Plus Beux problems d'Echecs he collected over 2000 chess problems and their answers.

1766 - 1828 AARON BEN MOSES HA-LEVI (Horwitz) OF STRASHELYE. ( Lithuania)

Rabbi and Hassidic leader .Although a dedicated follower of Shneur Zalman of Liadi (1745), he broke with his son Dov Ber (the Mittler Rebbe) over ecstatic expression during prayer. He was the author of Sha'are Abodah (The Gates of Worship) and favored unrestricted enthusiasm as opposed to Dov Ber who believed that enthusiasm should rely on contemplation and understanding . Although his son Hayyim Raphael tried to continue with his legacy, after his death most of his Hassidim returned to the main Chabad movement.

1766 DOV BER (The Maggid) OF MEZHIRECH (d.19 kislev 1772)

Was recognized as the successor of the Baal Shem Tov who had died six years earlier. Dov Ber, a talmudic scholar and kabbalist, is credited with organizing Hasidism as a movement. Among his ideas was the role of the Tzaddik as a holy leader and medium between man and God, as well as Deveikut (communion with God) in all actions.

1768 ISHAQ AL-YAHUDI ( Egypt)

The Jewish Ottoman appointed tax collector, was arrested, fined 40,000 gold pieces, and then murdered by Ali Bey al-Kabir. Ali Bey (1728-1773) was a Mamluk leader who rebelled against the Ottoman rule. Al-Yahudi’s death signaled the end of Jews serving in governmental positions in Egypt, being mostly replaced by Syrian Catholics. It also marked the decline of the position of Jewish community in general.

1768 - 1828 ISRAEL JACOBSON (Germany) 

The "Father of Reform", he was also the financial agent of Jerome Bonaparte, King of Westphalia. He organized the first Reform service and later founded the first Reform Temple with the help of Jacob Herz Beer. Jacobson was a strong believer in inter-racial association, and in 1801 established a school for Jewish and Christian children in the Herz mountains. The Reform movement was also known as the "Liberal" or "Progressive" movement. It developed partly out of the political and cultural emancipation of Jews in Western Europe. Although Jacobson sought a basis for his ideas in traditional Judaism, the Reform movement soon sought to distance itself from Orthodoxy, nationalism, and the authority of the written and Oral Law and concentrate on the "universal" aspects of Judaism. (See 1806, 1810, 1885)

1768 June 18, HAIDAMAK MASSACRES (Ukraine) 

Reached Uman. The peasant serfs and Cossacks rioted much in the same vein as Chemielnicki one hundred and twenty years earlier. At Uman, the Poles and Jews defended the city together under the Polish commander, Ivan Gonta. The next day, convinced by Zheleznyak the Polish revolutionary that only the Jews would be attacked, Gonta allowed the fortified city to be entered without a fight. Approximately 8000 Jews were killed, many of them trying to defend themselves near the synagogue. As soon as the Jews were all massacred, the Haidamaks (the paramilitary bands) began to kill the Poles. Although the Haidamacks began in the 1730's, the main rioting was during the years 1734, 1750 and 1768. It is estimated that during these years 20,000 Jews were killed. The Haidamaks became part of the Ukrainian national movement and are celebrated in folklore and literature.

1769 MORDECAI MOSES MORDECAI (USA)

Became the first Jew to farm in Lancaster Pennsylvania, in what was known then as “ the West”.

1770 - 1839 ISRAEL BEN SAMUEL “ASHKENAZI” OF SHKLOV (Belarus-Eretz Israel)

Talmudist and scholar. He was one of many the students of the Vilna Gaon who decided to move to Eretz Israel. In 1824 while lying very ill from cholera, he made a promise that if he survived he would write a definitive code of laws applying to Eretz Israel. He did survive and although his manuscript was destroyed in an earth quake he rewrote it. Pe'at ha-Shulchan (Corner of the Table) is one of the most important works examining all the laws that pertain to Eretz Israel.

1772 - 1837 CHARLES FOURIER (France)

Catholic anti-Semite; he vented his hatred for the Jews at every available moment.

1772 FRANKFURT (Germany)

Rabbi Pinhas Halevi Horowitz was appointed Rabbi in Frankfurt despite his Hasidic leanings. He held the position until his death in 1805.

1772 - 1812 HAKHMEI SHKLOV “Sages of Shklov” (Belarus)

Settled by students of the Vilna Gaon (see 1720) it became a major center for Talmudic and Halachic studies. The group of scholars were led by Binyamin Rivlin (1728-1810),and know as the Hakhmei ( Chachmei) Shklov . They were a powerful force in the anti-Hassidic movement. His son Hillel (1758-1838) eventually left with many of the Gaon’s disciples for Eretz Israel.

1772 - 1824 DAVID RICARDO (England)

Founded Political Economy as a science. His chief work was Principles of Politics and Taxation. Ricardo's theories provided the scientific basis for the rule of free trade.

1772 - 1811 (18 Tishrei 5571) NAHMAN BRESLOV “Bratslaver” (Medzhybizh –Uman, Ukraine

Simply known as Rebbi Nachman. He was the great-grandson of the Besht (the Baal Shem Tov). Nahman forged new , if controversial ideas regarding Hasidut. He strongly believed in the principle of the Tzaddik Hador (holy person of the generation) and Hibodedut (self-seclusion) in prayer. He also promoted the importance of confession to the Rebbe, but seems to have dropped it near the end of his life. He was against the developing dynastic concept in the Hasidic world. Nahman was opposed even within the Hasidic world, mainly by Rabbi Aryeh Leib of Shpola (1725–1812) aka the "Shpoler Zeide". None of his sons survived him. His works included Likutey Moharan (Collected Teachings of Our Teacher), Tikkun HaKlali (General Remedy), and Sippurei Ma'asiyot (Tales of Rabbi Nachman). Many of his works were edited by his disciple Nathan Sternhartz, who also wrote his biography Chayey Moharan.

1772 - 1795 POLAND WAS PARTITIONED 

This was the first of three partitions (1772, 1794, 1795). The Ukraine went to Russia, Galicia to Austria (whose Jewish population now doubled), and Lithuania to Prussia. Thus Catherine II inherited many of the same Jews she was trying to be rid of. Each monarch made an effort to integrate and assimilate its Jews into the "State of Order" and central administration, thus abolishing self-rule for the most part.

1774 December 19, FRANCIS SALVADOR (USA)

Was elected to the first Provincial Congress of South Carolina which became the General Assembly in 1776 making him the first Jew to hold a State office. He was killed in August 1776 while fighting against British supported Cherokee Indians.

1775 - 1816 SAMUEL (Dutch Sam) ELIAS

Boxing champion and originator of the "uppercut". Though famous throughout his career, he died a pauper plagued with boxing-derived illnesses.

1775 - 1854 JUDAH TOURO (USA) 

Merchant-philanthropist. Judah Touro moved to New Orleans at the age of 22 and became a successful trader. He enlisted in the War of 1812 under Andrew Jackson and was wounded in the defense of New Orleans. Touro never married but left large funds (estimated $500,000) for various philanthropic purposes. Some of them included completing the Bunker Hill monument, enclosing the Jewish Cemetery in Newport, Rhode Island, and numerous almshouses and Jewish congregations in New Orleans and other cities. His funds joined with Montefiore's to help build the first housing complex outside the walls of the old city of Jerusalem, Mishkenot Shananim.

1775 April 5, POPE PIUS VI (1775-98) 

Partly in reaction to success of the reformation, he issued the Editto Sopra Gli Ebrei. The proclamation of Pope Pius VI reinstated all former anti-Jewish legislation. The 44 clauses included prohibitions against possessing talmudic writings and erection of grave stones. They also forbade Jews from passing the night outside the ghetto under pain of death. The regulations were in effect until the arrival of Napoleon's army 25 years later.

1775 September 28, STOCKHOLM (Sweden)

Aaron Isaac, a gem carver, became the first Jew to be granted the right of residence in Sweden. Within 3 years he was joined by 40 families.

C. 1776 - C. 1823 JEAN LAFITTE

Pirate and adventurer. Lafitte is mostly known for helping General Andrew Jackson in the war of 1812. Evidently his mother and maternal grandmother (Zora Nadrima), were crypto Jews, who had fled to France after his grandfather was executed by the inquisition.

1776 May 31, MANTUA (Italy) 

Because Jews were not allowed to expand their housing outside the ghetto, they were forced to build vertically. Many times accidents occurred from weakened structures. On this occasion, two weddings held in the same house caused it to collapse. Twenty-eight women (including one of the brides) and three men were killed.

1776 July 4, DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

This document provided the basis for religious tolerance in most other countries. While there were less than 2,500 Jews within the colonies, approximately 600 Jews participated in the revolution including 24 officers and the great-grandfather of Supreme Court Justice Cardozo. Isaac Franks, David Salisbury Franks and Solomon Bush all attained the rank of lieutenant colonel. One company in South Carolina had so many Jews that it was called the "Jews Company".

1776 August 1, FRANCIS SALVADOR (USA)

Became the first Jew to die in the American Revolution at the age of 29. His exploits as an officer earned him the title of the "Paul Revere of the South." He lead an army of 330 men defending the frontier settlers against the Cherokee Indians, who had been incited by the British.

1777 - 1836 NATHAN MEYER ROTHSCHILD (Germany-England)

Famous for his Waterloo scoop in which he used carrier pigeons between England and Belgium to gain knowledge of the victory before anyone else. He expanded his father's bank into a world-wide firm.

1777 LARGE IMMIGRATION OF HASDIM ( Eretz-Israel)

Menahem Mendal of Vitbist and Abraham of Kalisk arrived to Safed with a group of around 300 people. Different reasons are given for this large (for its time) immigration; some say the it was due to the persecution by the Mitnagdim(see 1720), others claim it had a messianic fervor and still claim it was for purely religious reasons. Many of them later moved to Tiberias.

1778 JUEDISCHE FREISCHULE "Jewish Free School" (Germany)

Was established by Isaac Daniel Itzig and his brother in law, David Friedlander(1750-1834). The school, which omitted Talmud and limited Hebrew studies, concentrated on math, German, French, and commercial courses. After 1806, non-Jewish students were accepted, and they soon became one-third of the student body. (Since Juedische Freischule was the the first Haskalah school established, many use this date to mark the beginning of the Haskalah (Enlightenment) Movement, whose initial aim was to "modernize" Judaism by opening it to European culture and specifically to a philosophy of rationality which was spreading throughout Europe. Jews were encouraged to adopt the manners, dress, and language of their host country. In the beginning there were Orthodox leaders who supported some of the educational aims of the movement. When it became apparent that the movement was leading to an anti-halachic and assimilationist direction, the Orthodox establishment banned the movement, and established its own educational response to it through Samson Rafael Hirsch and others.

1780 JACOB JOSEPH(Polyonnye, Poland)

Rabbi and author, he published the first Hasidic book, Toldoth Yaakov Yoseph , which put forth the teachings of the Baal Shem Tov. He was the developer of the Hasidic doctrine of the Tzaddik, as the Holy One, the soul of the Hasidic body.

1780 - 1852 Judah Bibas- Rabbi and “Dreamer of Zion” ( Gibraltar-Hebron)

Born in Gibraltar he later headed a Yeshiva there. He was appointed Rabbi of Corfu in 1832 where he reformed its educational system. Bibas also had a doctorate from Livorno Italy. He became a strong supporter of the “Teshuva” movement which believed that inner repentance had to be coupled with returning to Eretz Israel. During his travel around of Europe (1839-40) promoting his ideas, he met Judah Alkelai (1798-1878) of Sarajevo, who from then on considered himself Bibas’ student. He settled in Hebron in 1852 near the end of his life and is quoted as saying “ Jews must learn science and arms(weapons) so they can wrest the land of Palestine from the Turks”.

1780 - 1855 RACHEL JOSEPH (SOLOMONS) ( Canada)

Early Canadian pioneer she married Henry Joseph a ritual slaughterer/ businessman who fought in the war of 1812. Her father Levy was one of the first Jews in Canada and a founder of the Shearith Israel congregation in Montreal ( 1768) the oldest synagogue in Canada. Rachel remained orthodox throughout her life and on her own did her best to educate her children as such.rn

1780 January 7, ASSEMBLY OF RHODE ISLAND (USA)

Cancelled the "rights and property" of three members of the Hart family for supporting the British. Isaac Hart was murdered for the same "offence." Although many Jews were supporters of the revolution, others were supporters of the Tory cause. Some like Isaac Touro (father of Judah) decided to find refuge in Jamaica and other parts of the British Empire.

1781 URANUS

Was discovered by Sir William Frederick Hershel.

1781 - 1869 REBECCA GRATZ (USA)

Educator and philanthropist. Born to religious parents she remained an observant Jew all of her life. She became active in philanthropic affairs at an early age. Gratz founded or help found such institutions as the Female Association for the Relief of Women and Children of Reduced Circumstances in Philadelphia, The Philadelphia Orphan Asylum, The Female Hebrew Benevolent Society and a Hebrew Sunday school for which she didn’t charge a fee. She is purported to be the prototype of Sir Walter Scott's Rebecca in Ivanhoe.

1781 March 6, GEORGIA (USA)

Governor James Wright ordered the Jews of the Georgia to leave, accusing them of being disloyal to his majesty by supporting the revolution. The order was never carried out.

1781 October 21, AUSTRIA 

Joseph II rescinded the law forcing Jews to wear a distinctive badge. The regulation had been in effect since 1267, more than 600 years.

C. 1782 - 1854 MOSES ELIAS LEVY (USA)

Pioneer in Florida. Levy was a plantation developer who was rumored to have been the first to introduce the growing of sugar cane there. Levy fought against the idea of slavery and proposed that a Jewish agricultural school be developed to replace slavery. He also tried to encourage Jewish settlement of the area. Levy was not successful in either managing his farms or giving over his Jewish ideals to his children, both of whom converted. One of them, David Levy-Yulee, became the first senator of Florida.

1782 - 1853 ISAAC BEN SOLOMON FARHI, (Safed)

Scholar and kabbalist, also known as “the rabbi who leads the masses to the right path” for his piety and ethics. Farhi was a member of the Bet El Yeshiva in Jerusalem, and was renowned for his effort in helping the poor. He was a prolific writer, whose works included Matok mi-Devash, Marpe la-Ezem and Matok la-Nefesh on ethics,Tuv Yerushalayim which extolled the virtues of Eretz Israel, and , and Minei Metikah sermons for the Sabbath.

1782 JUDITH ROSANES (Zolkiev)

Moved to Lemberg and opened a printing shop. Before she died in 1805 she had printed at least 50 books. She was one of the most successful women pioneers in the Hebrew printing business. She employed 24 people.

1782 January 2, EDICT OF TOLERANCE (Toleranzpatent) (Austria) 

Guaranteeing existing rights and obligation of the Jewish population, was enacted by Joseph II of Austria, the son of Maria Theresa. Joseph II was influenced by Wilhelm von Dohn, a friend of Mendelssohn and beginning with this edict, followed a generally enlightened attitude toward the Jews. The Edict (with the final edict less liberal then the original), received mixed reviews by Jewish leaders including Ezekiel Landau and Moses Mendelssohn.

1782 May 2, THE FIRST JEWISH SCHOOL (Prague) 

was opened in Prague under the guidance of Rabbi Ezekiel Landau (see 1713). Despite his arguments with many of the Maskilim he supported the study of general education including history, grammar, and natural sciences.

1783 MOROCCO

The Sultan expelled the Jews after they failed to pay an exorbitant ransom. This was the third time they were expelled within a number of years.

1783 - 1869 (1 Tamuz 5529) SOLOMON BEN JUDAH KLUGER (MARSHAK) (Brody)

Talmudist and halachist. He studied under the Dubno Maggid and was known for his responsa. It is said that he wrote 375 books, although "only" 174 are known.

1783 March 31, HUNGARY 

Joseph II allowed Jews to live in the "Royal cities", including Pest. By 1787, 81,000 Jews lived in Hungary.

1784 FIRST JEWISH PUBLIC SCHOOL (Altofen, Austria)

Was opened by Naphtali Wessely. Wessley advocated combining both Torah haAdam (human knowledge) and Torat Elokim (Divine knowledge) in one curriculum.

1784 - 1885 (16 Av 5645) SIR MOSES MONTEFIORE (Italy-England) 

Sheriff of London and leading Jewish figure. Wealthy in his own right, he married into the Rothschild family and was extremely successful in his financial ventures. He retired at an early age (1824) and devoted his life to serving Jewish causes. He is noted for his numerous visits to Eretz Israel, contributions to many philanthropies, and intercessions into Jewish affairs. One of his greatest successes was his interference in the Damascus Affair (see 1840). He is credited with founding numerous agricultural settlements in Eretz Israel and the first Jewish quarter outside the old city walls (Mishkenot Shaananim). He added the top levels to the Kotel (Western Wall) to prevent Arabs from throwing garbage and stones on Jews praying at the Wall, and he rebuilt Rachel's tomb.

1784 January 10, LOUIS XVI (France) 

Abolished the poll-tax on Jews in Alsace-Lorraine. This tariff was the same tax paid for market animals. It was paid by Jews who wished to enter certain cities. The poll tax had been instituted in many countries in Europe and dated back as far as the Roman Emperor Domitian (93 C.E.), though it was only adopted in Europe in the 14th century.

1785 COUNT PIERRE LOUIS ROEDERER (France)

French politician and economist. He posed the question of Jewish emancipation at the Metz Royal Academy, which he fully supported.

1785 - 1851 July 19, MORDECHAI MANUEL NOAH (Philadelphia, USA) 

Author, journalist, and diplomat, he became the United State's consul to Tunis. Noah dwelled upon the problem of a haven for Jewish refugees. He wrote about the importance of a revived Jewish homeland. In 1825, he decided to acquire Grand Island as a Jewish city of refuge. The plan and the city faded. After he failed to keep his position in the elections for Sheriff of New York, he was appointed Grand Sachem of Tammany Hall by Martin Van Buren. In 1837 he came to the conclusion that the best solution was for the Jews to have their own homeland in Eretz Israel.

1785 - 1840 NACHMAN KROCHMAL (Galicia)

Tried to formulate a philosophy of Jewish history. He wrote the Guide for the Perplexed in Our Times. He endeavored to explain a Jewish philosophy of history using the mission theory. Together with Leopold Zunz he was part of the Wissenschaft des Judentums(The scientific investigation of Judaism/Hohmat Israel) movement which endeavored to study Judaism through modern methods of research.

1786 - 1866 JOSEPH ZUNDEL SALANT (Lithuania-Eretz Israel)

"Spiritual Father" of the Mussar (ethical) Movement established by Israel Lipkin Salanter (see 1810). Although an exemplary student of Hayim Volozhiner and Akiva Eiger, he refused to accept a rabbinical position, preferring to work for a few hours a day earning his living as a shopkeeper and spending the rest of his day studying. He moved to Jerusalem in 1837 and there again in his humility he refused any official position, opening a vinegar factory instead.

1786 - 1837 LUDWIG BOERNE (Germany)

Political essayist. He believed that freedom for mankind and freedom of the Jews were bound together. Though he was later baptized, he still fought for Jewish rights. His famous Letters from Paris called for an end to injustice in Germany. Boerne, along with Heine, are considered major influences in German literature.

1786 JEDDA (Arabia)

The small mostly Yemenite Jewish community in Jedda was expelled and not allowed to return.

1786 October 4, AARON LEVY (1742-1815) (USA)

A land speculator who had made many loans to the Continental Congress, he announced plans for a new town, Aaronsburg, to be built in the Penn Valley. This was the first town to be founded and named after a Jew. Unfortunately, it did not succeed and left him in difficult financial straits.

1787 July 18, TREATY BETWEEN MOROCCO AND THE UNITED STATES

Called the “Treaty of Peace and Friendship”, was signed. The treaty was negotiated in part by Isaac Cordoza Nuñes, on behalf of the sultan in Marrakesh, and Isaac Pinto (1720–1791), a U.S. citizen of Moroccan origin, It remains the longest unbroken treaty relationship in United States history.

1787 November 12, JOSEPH II (Austria-Hungary) 

As part of his "Aufklarung" (Enlightenment)policy, he forced the Jews to adopt family names. This was part of the European movement (including the Age of Reason in France) which encouraged rationality and science over religion.

1788 - 1860 ISAAC BAER LEVINSOHN (Russia)

Called "the Russian Mendelssohn". He became a notable Yiddish satirist and Haskalah leader. In his Bet Yehudah (1837), he formulated a philosophy and described Jewish contributions to civilization in an effort to promote Judeo-Christian understanding.

1788 JEWS IN POLAND AND LITHUANIA

The number of Jews residing in Poland and Lithuania was estimated at well over 990,000.

1788 PRUSSIA (Germany)

The poll-tax was lifted from the Jews.

1788 January 18, Botany Bay Australia

The first group of approximately 1300 men, women, and children landed in Australia from England on what was to become known as the first fleet”. Most were convicted of crimes in England and were sentenced to various terms of forced settlement. Among them were twenty – three Jews (including an infant).One of them was John Harris who, after being freed, became the first policeman in Australia.

1789 WESTERN EUROPE

Approximately four hundred thousand Jews lived in Western Europe, three quarters of them in Germany.

1789 - 1866 (25 Adar 5626) ISAAC MEIR ROTHENBERG ALTER (Poland)

Scholar and Hassidic leader. Isaac Meir was recognized as an outstanding scholar from an early age. His Novellae on the Talmud and the Shulchan Aruch are known as Chidushei Ha-rim and are still classical texts today. He was a follower of the Kutzk branch of Hasidim and became their leader. Isaac Meir founded the dynasty of Gur Hasidim which was one of the leading Hasidic groups in Europe. He believed strongly in not separating himself, but working directly, on daily problems with ordinary people.

1789 July 14, FRANCE

Fall of the Bastille. Jews viewed the fall of Bastille as a triumph although by and large they were not allowed to participate in the election of the Estates-General which became the Constituent National Assembly. Many of them enlisted in the National Guard. At the same time, more then 1000 Jews in Alsace were forced to flee during the Agrarian revolt there.

1790 - 1867 (19 Tishrei 5628) SOLOMON RAPOPORT (Lemburg, Germany - Prague, Bohemia)

Rabbi, historical researcher, and biographer of talmudic and post-talmudic personages. Among his other works, he edited the notes of Benjamin of Tudela and wrote about the independent Jewish tribes of Arabia and the Karaites. His works on Sa'adia Gaon, Hai Gaon, and Rabbi Natan (the Aruch) established a precedent in accurate chronology of Jewish history.

1790 - 1871 RACHEL LUZZATTO MORPURGO (Italy)

Hebrew poet, she was related to Moses Hayyim Luzzatto . Morpurgo was well educated and had studied the Talmud and the Zohar, as well as math and Italian literature. Her poetry published in the Hebrew journal Kokhavei Yitzhak ('Stars of Isaac'), established her as the first woman to have written modern Hebrew poetry . Some of her works were published in 1890 under the title Ugav Rahel ('Rachel’s Harp').

1790 January 27, FRANCE

Active citizenship was extended to the "well born" Sephardic Jews of Bordeaux, who promptly bowed out of the fight for equal rights. They looked upon their poorer brothers in Alsace-Lorraine with contempt.

1791 - 1864 GIACOMO (Jacob) MEYERBEER (Germany)

Pianist and operatic composer, including Le Huguenots and Le Prophets. Meyerbeer was mainly associated with French Opera. Despite numerous obstacles placed in his way by many people, including Weber, he remained a proud and faithful Jew all his life.

1791 GODDARD (France)

Along with Jewish members of the National Guard, he pleaded effectively for equal rights for all Jews.

1791 MENAHEM MENDEL LEFIN (LEVIN) (1749-1826) (Poland)

An early leader of the Haskalah Movement. He published a pamphlet in French promoting the reform of Polish Jewry. Lefin often wrote in Hebrew and even Yiddish. He believed that education was the best way of encouraging emancipation. Though strongly opposed to Hasidism, he nonetheless believed that Jewish tradition was vital for the preservation of Judaism.

1791 May 3, POLAND 

While Austria and Russia fought against the Ottoman Empire and unrest mounted in Poland, King Stanislaus Augustus Poniatovski adopted a constitution turning Poland into a constitutional monarchy. The constitution itself did not change anything for the Jews, or even of the old class (feudalist) regime with the nobles rights remaining as they were. It was too little too late. Polish noblemen, who opposed the new constitution, invited Czarina Catherine II to send Russian troops which resulted in the second partition and the canceling of the constitution.

1791 September 27, FRANCE 

Jews were granted full rights and declared citizens. This is the first time that Jews were declared full citizens in a European country since the Roman Empire.

1791 December 23, CATHERINE II (Russia) 

Created the Pale of Settlement. Jews were squeezed out of the major cities and ports into the area known as White Russia. Even within the Pale, Jews were excluded from certain cities and Crown lands. The driving force behind the creation of the Pale were the merchants in Moscow, who demanded protection against Jewish competition.

1792 DEATH OF JOSEPH TEOMIM (Lemberg, Germany)

1792-1862 URIAH P. LEVY (USA)

1792 (7 Tamuz 5552) OSTROG (Poland)

Russian troops attacked the synagogue, mistaking it for a fortress. No one was hurt. In celebration, a "Purim Ostrog" was declared. A megillah was read on its anniversary.

1793 - 1864 ISAAC NOAH MANNHEIMER (Copenhagen, Denmark-Vienna, Austria)

Preacher, orator, and director of the Reform temple in Vienna. He refused the title of Rabbi and later (1848) was elected a member of the Austrian Reichstag.

1793 (1 Shvat 5553) ROME (Italy) 

A tragedy was narrowly averted in the Jewish ghetto after a mob set fire to the ghetto gates. The riot was partially in reaction to the liberalism of the French Revolution and partly in response to a Jewish protest after two Jewish orphans were forcibly baptized. Only a fortunate downpour which put out the fire prevented the ghetto from catching fire. The day was celebrated as holiday by Roman Jews.

1794 - 1925 KAJAR DYNASTY (Persia)

A fanatical Shiite dynasty which continued the policy of declaring non-Moslems impure and worthy of persecution. Many Jewish communities were either driven out (Tabriz c. 1797) or forcibly converted (Meshed 1839). Eventually (in the 1860's) European Jews, hearing about their difficulties, began to exert international pressure to alleviate their plight.

1794 - 1886 LEOPOLD ZUNZ

A friend of Heine and Boerne and an eminent scholar. He sided with Frankel's reformers in a vote for tradition. Zunz founded (along with Krochmal) the Wissenschaft des Judentums (The scientific investigation of Judaism) in 1819. As an author, he pleaded for public (secular) recognition of Jewish literature, "Jewish Science". Zunz wrote a biography on Rashi, traced the development of liturgical literature, wrote Bible criticisms, and discoursed on many other subjects.

1794 June 23, POLAND

With the second partition of Poland, additional territory was added to the Pale which came to include parts of the Ukraine and the city of Kiev.

1794 September 17, THADDEUS (TADEUSZ) KOSCIUSZKO (Poland)

Praised the role played by Jews in his abortive revolt against Russia. Singling out Warsaw's Jews he wrote, "(they showed) to the whole world that when it comes to human rights they do not spare their blood". As part of his revolt he granted Joseph Aronowicz and Berek Joselowicz (see 1765) permission to form a Jewish legion. Five hundred men volunteered to a call to arms issued in Yiddish, and fought in Praga, a suburb of Warsaw.

1795 THIRD AND FINAL PARTITION OF POLAND 

Russia, under Catherine II, defeated Kosciusco and swallowed what was left of the Ukraine and Lithuania. She then possessed 900,000 Jews. Prussia received Warsaw and its surrounding area while Galicia was given to Austria.

1795 - 1874 (5 Cheshvan 5634) ZEVI HIRSCH KALISHER (Germany-Prussia) 

The foremost developer of a nationalistic religious philosophy, which he expounded in his Dreishat Zion (The Seeking of Zion). Kalisher was a student of Rabbi Akiva Eiger and served as an unpaid rabbi in the town of Thorn (now part of Poland). He believed that the return to Zion should be brought about by acts, not by waiting for the Messiah (see 1862. Once the Jews returned to Zion, then the Messiah would come. Kalisher was instrumental in encouraging the idea of establishing agricultural settlements as well as having Jews guarding them.

1796 - 1801 REIGN OF PAUL I OF RUSSIA

Due to the partitioning of Poland, he inherited most of the Jews in Eastern Europe. With the help of the nobility, Paul I initiated an investigation into the "problem" of the Jews. According to one of the proposals, Jews should be forced to accept family names, abandon distinctive dress, send all children to public schools after age 12, and be forbidden to participate in city government. The Jewish population of White Russia was to be evenly distributed within White Russia, with the rest transferred to other areas.

1796 - 1880 ADOLPH (ISAAC) CREMIEUX (France) 

One of the most brilliant Jewish orators and advocates of the Revolution of 1848. On many occasions, he used his influence in the government to help his fellow Jews. He also helped found the Alliance Israelite Universelle. His son, however, converted to Christianity.

1796 ST. THOMAS (West Indies)

The synagogue Berakha ve Shalom u Gemilut Hassidim was founded and is still in existence today.

1796 April 17, EASTERN POLAND

After falling to Prussia in the third partition of Poland in 1795, the government enacted "The Regulation" which removed a number of regulations regarding occupations and domicile restrictions for Jews. This still left many of the old regulations in place, including that of not being able to marry under the age of 25, and then only upon proof of a fixed income.

1796 September 2, HOLLAND BECOMES THE BATAVIAN REPUBLIC

And granted equality to its 50,000 Jews.

1797 - 1856 HEINRICH HEINE (Germany)

German lyrical poet and essayist. He converted to Christianity in the hope of obtaining a professorship in German literature, calling it his admission ticket to European culture, but he denounced Eduard Gans as a scoundrel for converting. Heine referred to Judaism as one of the three evil maladies, the other two being poverty and pain. Notwithstanding this, he used his position to defend Jewish rights at times. Although he experienced personal rejection due to his Jewish past and pro-Napoleonism, his works (published in 21 volumes in 1863) achieved universal fame - notably for his wit and sarcasm. His famous Buch der Lieder (1827) included Auf Fluegeln des Gesanges (On Wings of Song), and the Lorelei.

1797 CHARLES JERRAM

A British clergyman published ‘Scriptural Grounds for expecting the Restoration of the Jews,’ Jerram (1770–1853) believed that the Bible supports the restoration of the Jews to their homeland.

1797 April 17, EASTERN POLAND

After falling to Prussia in the third partition of Poland in 1793, the government enacted "The Regulation", which removed a number of regulations regarding occupations and domicile restrictions for Jews. This still left many of the old regulations in place, including the one about not being able to marry under the age of 25, and then only upon proof of a fixed income.

1797 July 10, VENICE (Italy)

Less then two months after the French, under Napoleon, captured the city, the ghetto gates were torn down. A tree of liberty was erected while the local populace danced and celebrated. Then, with the active participation of the newly formed civic guard and some of the local priests, the gates were chopped up and burned. The ghetto was in existence for 281 years and 3 months.

1797 August 28, PADUA (Italy) 

Four months after the entry of the French army, the provisional government decreed that "Jews are able to live in every part of the city." Jews enlisted in the National Guard and the main street in the ghetto was changed to Via Libera. Unfortunately, as in most parts of Italy, this newly won freedom only lasted until the arrival of Austrian troops 8 months later.

1798 - 1870 DOV BERESH MEISELS (Poland)

Rabbi, banker, and Polish nationalist. Meisels was a descendent of Moses Isserles and authored Chidushei Mahardam, a commentary on the Sefer ha-Mitzvot of Maimonides. He became rabbi of Cracow and later of Warsaw. Meisels supported Polish (Cracow) independence from Russia and Austria (where he became a member of parliament (see 1861)). These views led to his frequent expulsions and imprisonment by the Czarist authorities (see 1848). Upon his death, the Russian authorities even banned any obituaries for him in the press. His funeral in Warsaw was attended by thousands.

1798 - 1839 EDUARD GANS (Germany)

Jurist and one of the founders (along with Zunz and others) of the Verein fuer Cultur und Wissenschaft der Juden (Society for Jewish Culture and Science). Gans' contribution to jurisprudence was a series of papers concerning the Jews of Rome and Roman Law.

1798 - 1878 JUDAH ALKALAI (Sarajevo-Jerusalem)

Rabbi, author, and precursor of modern political Zionism. Alkalai studied in Jerusalem before returning to a post as Rabbi in Zemun(near Belgrade). At age 76 he returned with his wife to live in Eretz Israel. Alkalai wrote many books Darkhei No'am (Pleasant Ways), Shalom Yerushalayim ( Peace of Jerusalem)(1840), Goral la-Adonai (A Lot for the Lord),(1857) and Minhat Yehuda (offering of Judah) (1843) . In them he discussed the idea of Teshuva (return) both spiritually and physically and was greatly influenced by Judah Bibas. He called on Jews to help finance the purchase of land from the Turks, the establishment of agricultural enterprises and the renewal of Hebrew as a spoken language.

1798 February 15, ROME (Italy) 

After the occupation of Rome by General Berthier, the local republicans dethroned the Pope and Jews removed the yellow badge. Two days later, a tree of freedom was planted in front of the synagogue.

1798 July 1, SWITZERLAND

Special taxes on Jews were finally abolished.

1798 September 12, FRANCE 

In the wake of the French capture of Mayence (1792), the gates of the ghetto were torn down. The Jews of Mayence remained French citizens until the end of the occupation in 1814.

1799 ITALY

With the uprising of the counter-revolutionary forces against Napoleon, the Jews, who had risen to his banner, were attacked everywhere.

1799 THE "DRY BAPTISM" INITIATIVE

Was proposed by David Friedlander as a compromise to help integrate into Christian society. Friedlander ( 1750-1884) was a successful banker, and considered to be the successor to Moses Mendelssohn. He proposed that Jews join the Lutheran church on a moral and ethical basis, without accepting the belief of Jesus as the messiah.

1799 February 25, NAPOLEON CAPTURED GAZA (Eretz- Israel) 

This was his first encounter with "Palestinian" Jews. It is said that he offered "the re-establishment of ancient Jerusalem" as a Jewish homeland in return for Jewish loyalty.

1799 March 18, HAIFA WAS CAPTURED BY NAPOLEON 

This marked the greatest extent of Napoleon's conquest of Eretz Israel. The next day the French reached Acre. It was sucessfully defended by both British warships and local towns people, including the Jewish inhabitants. By June, Napoleon gave up and returned to Egypt.

1799 April 20, NAPOLEON’S LETTER TO THE JEWISH NATION ( Eretz Israel)

As reported by Le Moniteur Napoleon called for Jews, as its “ rightful heirs”, to join him in freeing “Palestine”. Thus becoming the first (soon to be head of state) to propose the re-establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel.

1800 - 1810 ONE TENTH OF THE GERMAN JEWISH POPULATION CONVERTED

ONE TENTH OF THE GERMAN JEWISH POPULATION CONVERTED

C. 1800 ABRAHAM MORDECAI (USA)

Founded a store and cotton gin on the bluffs near the Coosa and Tallapoosa Rivers in Alabama. In 1805, the Indians burned it down and cut off his left ear for allegedly cavorting with a chief's squaw. He returned in 1814 to rebuild what was later to become the city of Montgomery.

1800 - 1850 ALIYAH TO ERETZ ISRAEL

Approximately 6000 people immigrated to Eretz Israel during this period. In addition to those immigrating from Eastern Europe, others arrived from Syria(Aleppo), Morocco, Tunis, and Yemen. Many perished during the cholera epidemics and the earthquake of 1837.

1801 - 1825 REIGN OF ALEXANDER I (Russia)

Though at first a liberal, he rapidly changed his perspective. However, he envisioned the eventual emancipation for the Jews and their absorption into Russian "Christian" culture and life.

1801 - 1875 ZECHARIA FRANKEL (Germany)

"Father of Conservative Judaism". As a moderate reformer, he objected to the changing of tradition. His views became known as "Historical Judaism". Frankel advocated an evolving Judaism which would only permit changes which were not in variance with the spirit of historical Judaism. As such he was against transferring all the prayers to the vernacular. As resident of the Breslau Seminary from 1854 until his death, he published many works, including a treatise on the Septuagint. His works include an examination of the Jewish oath Die Eidesleistung bei den Juden, an introduction to the MishnaDarkhei ha-Mishnah and an introduction to the Jerusalem Talmud Mevo ha-Yerushalmi.

1801 BUCHAREST (Romania)

A blood libel led to the death and wounding of 128 Jews.

1802 - 1810 BERLIN (Germany)

Fifty out of the 405 Jewish families in the city converted.

1802 - 1867 SOLOMON MUNK (Germany-France)

Historian and orientalist. He was a friend of Zunz and wrote a translation and criticism of Maimonides' Guide for the Perplexed, tracing his sources back to the original sources of Maimonides. His works also included his famous History of Eretz Israel in which he traced events from the Crusaders until the present time.

1802 HAYYIM VOLOZHINER (Belorus, Russia) 

Founded the Volozhin Yeshiva. Rav Hayyim introduced in his school the hevruta style of study whereby one learns with a colleague rather then by oneself. Volozhin soon gained a reputation as one of the greatest Jewish centers of learning in the world. With its strict entrance exams and insistance on a high level of consistency, the school soon became the model for other schools of its kind, e.g. Mir (1815), Radun (1869), Telz (1875) and Navaredok (1896).

1802 - 1864 Phillip Joseph Cohen (England – Australia)

Was the first person to be authorized (by Rabbi Solomon Hershel) to perform marriages. Cohen, who arrived in 1827 for commercial purposes became very active in the small Jewish community. He founded the first synagogue in his house Beit Hatphilla and the first New Year services in 1828.

1803 September 26, Joseph Samuel “the man they couldn’t hang (Australia)

Joseph Samuel had been sent to Australia on a prison ship at the age of 15 for stealing “linen, cloth and two silver spoons.” Two years after his arrival he was accused of killing a constable while committing a robbery. Although he admitted to the robbery, he denied involvement in the murder. Convicted, he was hanged standing on a cart. As it moved the rope broke. It was replaced with a new one but that too broke. Though unconscious he was hanged a third time, though incredibly, this rope snapped as well. The governor general decided to declare a pardon. The day happened to fall out on Yom Kippur. Later another person admitted to the crime.

1804 NATHAN THE WISE (Germany)

A play by Gotthold Lessing (see 1729) was produced in Germany. Lessing was said to have used his friend, Moses Mendelssohn, as his role model. The play preached toleration.

1804 - 1881 BENJAMIN DISRAELI (Earl of Beaconsfeld) (England) 

Despite his father's conversion to the Anglican faith and his own baptism at the age of thirteen, he never lost his pride in being part of the Jewish people. He was elected as a conservative member of Parliament in 1837. Soon after, he founded the Young England movement with other young Tories. He was a favorite of Queen Victoria and became Prime Minister of England, leading the Tory Party in 1868. In 1875, he helped England acquire the Suez Canal and had Queen Victoria proclaimed Empress of India. In two of his novels, Alroy and Tancred, he described the Jewish desire for independence in their own land.

1804 - 1851 KARL GUSTAV JACOBI (Germany)

Mathematician, known especially for his contributions in the fields of algebra, and rational mechanics, as well as his theory of elliptic functions. In 1824 he converted to Christianity in order to obtain a position as professor of mathematics at Konigsberg, and later at the University of Berlin.

1804 - 1890 SALOMON SULZER (Austria) 

"Father of Modern Hazzanut and Synagogue Music". The first to call himself cantor instead of Hazzan, he was a friend of Franz Shubert and one of the first to interpret Shubert's music.

1804 December 9, JEWISH STATUTE (Russia)

After two years of deliberation, Alexander I published legislation regarding the future of the Jews in Russia. Based on the premise that the Jews (especially those absorbed from Poland) were undesirable elements, it was declared that efforts should be made to transform them into "productive" citizens. On the one hand, Jews were allowed to attend university, open their own secular schools, and become involved in industry. On the other hand, in the villages they were severely restricted with regard to occupations and land ownership. This was part of his policy to cast blame on the Jews (rather then on the Polish nobles) for the exploitation of the peasants.

1805 - 1889 SAMUEL ALATRI (Rome, Italy)

Led the battle for Jewish freedom in Italy during the Risorgimento (Resurrection) Period (of Mazzini, 1834). Even Gregory XVI was forced to call him "Our Cicero".

1805 - 1855 ZEVI HIRSCH CHAJES (Brody-Lemberg, Germany)

One of the foremost Galician talmudic scholars. His work, Mevo Hatalmud (Introduction to the Talmud), is a valuable work, although it is more a commentary than an introduction.

1805 - 1888 HANNAH RACHEL VERBERMACHER aka Maiden of Ludomir (Volhynia "Ukraine").

Female Hassidic leader. Her father, Monesh, a wealthy merchant , was a follower of Rabbi Mordechai Twersky, (1770-1837)(the "Maggid of Chernobyl"). She refused to marry and began keeping commandments not incumbent on women, including praying with a tallit and phylacteries . Hannah became known as a scholar and holy person. She established her own Shtibel (the Gornshtibel) acting much in the same way as any Hassidic Rebbe. The traditional Hassidic community took exception and through Rabbi Twersky pressured her to cease her actions and marry. The marriage was very short lived, and Hannah immigrated to Jerusalem. There she again established a following , including Moslem women, and gave popular Shabbat lectures. Refusing to accept donations from abroad, she maintained her independence all her life.

1805 June 29, BLACK SABBATH (Algiers)

Hundreds of Jews were killed in rioting following the assassination of Naftali Busnach. Busnach, a shipping magnate, was the head of the Jewish community. He had a monopoly on much of the trade and extensive influence on the treasury. The Turkish garrison, jealous of his power, blamed him for the shortage of wheat and had him assassinated.

1806 - 1860 SAMUEL HOLDHEIM (Poland-Germany)

Radical Reform leader. Holdheim totally divorced Judaism from nationalism and changed the Sabbath to Sunday. In his book Ueber die Autonomie der Rabbinen und das Prinzip der juedischen Ehe he laid down his ideology, which included a separation of religious or ethical Judaism from nationalism. He was thus not against mixed marriages which he considered nationalist in content. He was helped by Abraham Geiger and vigorously opposed by Samson Rafael Hirsch.

1806 - 1868 ISAAC LEESER (Germany-USA)

One of the foremost rabbis and educators in the USA during the 19th century. Leeser established the first Jewish monthly in the US - The Occident in 1843. He published numerous Jewish textbooks for children, initiated the first Jewish college, Maimonides, in Philadelphia and was one of the founders of Jewish Publication Society of America. His translation of the Bible was the accepted Jewish translation in the United States for 50 years.

1806 JAMES GREEN (Gibraltar)

The British council general of Morocco was requested by the British Jews of Gibraltar, to help annul the decree that no Jew is allowed to appear in Morocco in western clothing. The regulation did not apply to Christians. This denoted the first time that European Jews requested from their country to intercede with a Moslem power. He did so, and the decree was cancelled.

1806 SHKLOV (Lithuania)

The first meeting of the students of the Vilna Gaon was headed by Benjamin Rivlin and his son Hillel with the objective of immigration to Eretz Israel . The idea and importance of this aspiration had been encouraged by the Vilna Gaon in his later years, and by Hayyim of Volozhin as early as 1800.

1806 July 26, NAPOLEON (France) 

Formed the Conference of Notables to deal with the relationship of the Jews and the French State. It consisted of 112 deputies from all parts of the French empire. At the assembly, which was led by the financier Abraham Furtado and Rabbi Joseph David Sinzheim, the delegates were confronted with a questionnaire on polygamy, usury, loyalty, and intermarriage. Pleased with their answers, Napoleon decided to re-establish the Sanhedrin under his careful direction, with representatives from all congregations. Even though the assembly was to be held on the Sabbath (some claim this was a loyalty litmus test), they decided to attend and not risk the wrath of the Emperor.

1807 - 1879 (1 Shvat 5640) MOSES SCHICK (Maharam Shick) (Slovakia-Austria)

Rabbi, Halachist and Jewish leader. Schick was a student of Moses Sofer. He established a Yeshiva at Hust, Hungary which attracted many students. Although he was a vigorous opponent of the Reform movement, he believed that sermons could be preached in any language. Schick was also a strong supporter of the Old Yishuv in Jerusalem. He composed almost 1000 responsa and is remembered for his works Maharam Schick, and Derashot.

1807 - 1867 ABRAHAM MAPU (Slobodka, Lithuania) 

First modern Hebrew novelist and one of the leaders of the Haskalah Movement in Eastern Europe. His most famous book was called Ahavat Zion (Love of Zion) which described the longing of the Jewish people for a better life. The book quickly went though 16 editions and was translated into nine languages. Aside from four novels, he also wrote three textbooks, all of which showed his creative talents.

1807 February 9, PARIS (France) 

First meeting of the Napoleonic Sanhedrin under the leadership of the Assembly of Jewish Notables. It opened amid great pomp and celebration under the direction of the financier Abraham Furtado. The Sanhedrin was modeled on the ancient tribunal in Jerusalem and consisted of 71 members; 46 Rabbis and 25 laymen. Rabbi David Sinzheim of Strasbourg was its president.

1807 May 14, BADEN (Germany)

Judaism was recognized as a tolerated religion. Although their rights improved, especially for the Schutzjuden (protected Jews), full emancipation would only be granted over 50 years later (see 1862).

1808 - 1863 BENEDICT STILLING (Germany)

An anatomist, he believed in the possibility of transplants. He was offered a senior position on condition that he renounce Judaism, but refused. He was then transferred to a small village. He resigned his position but continued to practice medicine and came to be considered one of the fathers of modern anatomy. Stilling was credited with determining the relationship between muscles, veins and arteries, and the role of the nervus sympathicus.

1808 MOROCCO

Jews were ordered into ghettos (mellahs) by the ruler of Morocco, Mulay Suleiman (1792-1822). This affected the cities of Tetuan, Rabat, Sale, and Mogador.

1808 - C. 1860 NATHANIEL ISAACS (South Africa)

Explorer. While on a rescue mission in 1825 he was shipwrecked in Port Natal. Isaacs served as the spokesman for those who were shipwrecked with the Zulu king, Tchaka, who regularly used torture and execution as a method of rule. Isaacs succeeded in gaining the King's trust, even leading a war party for Tchaka's benefit. In the process he was named Tamboosa (brave warrior) by the king. He spent the next seven years teaching the Zulus to raise cattle and sugar cane, while encouraging trade with the British. He urged the British to annex the territory. He left after seven years at the age of 24.

1808 - 1863 GABRIEL RIESSER (Germany) 

An assimilated Jew, he refused to adopt Christianity and became the leader of the Jewish Emancipation movement in Germany. He established a periodical called Der Jude (The Jew).

1808 - 1888 (27 Tevet 5658) SAMSON RAPHAEL HIRSCH (Germany) 

Father of traditional Jewish orthodoxy in the " modern" world. As rabbi of Frankfurt, he formulated his philosophy which stressed that tradition could satisfy modern society without losing orthodoxy. His vast works include his philosophical Horeb and Nineteen Letters of Ben Uziel, and his commentaries on the Bible, the Psalms and the Siddur. He was a staunch opponent of the Reform movement in Germany.

1808 - 1810 THE DISCIPLES OF THE VILNA GAON (Eretz Israel)

Began to settle in Eretz Israel with the arrival of the first group led his pupil, R. Menachem Mendel of Shklov (d. 1827). In all there were three groups of the Gaon’s students which immigrated to Eretz Israel. Most would initially settle in Safed. This would prevent conflict with the Jerusalem Sephardic community, suspicious that they would be competition for funds raised for Jerusalem inhabitants. It would also avoid confrontation with Arabs who held promissory notes on the Synagogue of Judah HeHasid, and saw all Ashkenazi immigrants an heir to those notes. In addition the Galilee allowed them to purchase land(1811) giving them an opportunity to keep the laws (mitzvot) of the land of Israel. They would form the basis of the Ashkenazi communities of Jerusalem and Safed setting up what was known as the Kollel Perushim. Many of the descendents of the disciples are leading figures in modern Israeli society. The Gaon himself had also set forth with his pupils, but for an unknown reason returned to Vilna where he died soon after.

1808 January 29, CANADA 

Ezekiel Hart (1767-1843), though elected to the Canadian parliament, was prevented from taking his seat because, as a Jew, he could not take the oath "on the true faith of a Christian." Though re-elected in May 1808 and in April 1809, he was prevented from being seated each time. Only in 1832 did legislation pass allowing Jews to hold public office and giving them full civil rights.

1808 March 17, INFAMOUS DECREE (Decret Infame) OF NAPOLEON (France) 

Cancelled any debt owed to Jews by those in military service, or by women if it was signed without the approval of their husbands or parents. It abolished the freedom of trade of the Jews by forcing them to acquire permits (which were almost never given) from the local prefects, and prevented Jews from settling in the area of the Upper and Lower Rhine.

1808 October 17, DUCHY OF WARSAW (Poland) 

With Napoleon's arrival, the new State parliament called for equal rights. Unfortunately, this did not include the Jews, whose rights would be postponed for 10 years "in the hope of eradicating all their distinctions which set them apart".

1808 December 1, JEROME BONAPARTE 

Granted full emancipation to the Jews in Westphalia.

1809 - 1847 FELIX MENDELSSOHN (Bartholdy, Germany)

Grandson of Moses Mendelssohn, he was raised as a Protestant and became a world-renowned composer. His works include five symphonies and a great number of violin and piano concertos, and oratories (Elijah, St. Paul).

1809 - 1879 (1 Tishrei 5640) MEIR LEIBUSH MALBIM (Chief Rabbi of Bucharest) (Romania)

Rabbi and commentator. His commentary on the Bible, showing the close relationship between the Oral and the Written Law, is widely used today. He also authored Hatorah V'Hamitzva, Ayelet Hashachar and other works. Malbim fought vociferously against the Reform movement, which had been making strong inroads in German Jewry, to the extent that he was briefly imprisoned. In Vilna, Moghilof, and Koenigsberg he was declared persona non grata by the local people.

1809 February 15, FOUNDATION OF THE 'LONDON JEWS' SOCIETY'

AKA 'The London Society for Promoting Christianity amongst the Jews'. This evangelical society’s main aim ( though meeting with little success) was to convert Jews to Protestant Christianity. In addition, they believed in the importance of restoring the Jewish people to the land of Israel. Known today as the CMJ (Church's Ministry Among Jewish People) they have constantly taken a pro Israel position.

1809 August 8, HILLEL RIVLIN (1758–1838) (Eretz Israel)

Arrived at the head of the third group of 70 pupils of the Vilna Gaon. Most, under Hayim b. Tobiah and Israel of Shklov settled in Safed. Others settled in Jerusalem with Rivlin, where they began to revitalize the Ashkenazi community.

1810 - 1874 ABRAHAM GEIGER (Germany)

Author and Bible critic, he helped to inspire the Jewish Reform movement. He was elected Rabbi of Breslau in 1840 and was one of the founders of theJuedisch-Theologisches Seminar in Breslau, the first reform rabbinical seminary in Central Europe. He eventually refused to preach to the Breslau reform congregation, feeling that they had gone too far with their reforms. Geiger viewed Judaism as a religion divorced from national aspirations, so much so that he was against Jewish political solidarity during the Damascus Affair. Although he considered circumcision "barbaric" he was against its elimination in the same way that he was against changing the Shabbat to Sunday. His works include Das Judenthum und seine Geschichte (Judaism and its History) as well as studies on Maimonides, the Karaites, and the influence of Judaism on Islam.

1810 - 1904 HAYYIM SELAG SLONINSKI (Bialystok, Poland)

Known as "Hazas". Orthodox mathematician and science writer. His works included Kochva d'Shavit on astronomy, Toldot ha-Shamayim on the calendar and Yesodai Hochmat Hashiur (Founding of the Science of Calculation). He founded Ha'Zefira, a Hebrew newspaper on science. His writings were accepted even by Orthodox Jews.

1810 - 1883 (25 Shvat 5643) ISRAEL LIPKIN (SALANTER) (Lithuania)

Scholar and founder of the Mussar or moralist movement, which stressed humility, as well as moral and ethical teachings. He was influenced by Joseph Salant (1786-1866) who is the spiritual Father of the Mussar movement and considered him his ideal. After serving for a time in Vilna as mashgiach (spiritual guide), he realized success in his ethical sermons to the degree that he established his own school. The Yeshiva Knesset Yisroel at Slobodka was founded on Salanter's principles. Similar schools were soon opened at Telshe, Lomza, and Slutsk. Although these teachings were designed to compliment the intellectual study of the Talmud and to encourage students' moral self-examination, many rabbinical leaders became concerned that it would lead to a neglect of talmudic study. Once, during a cholera epidemic, he commanded his congregation to eat on Yom Kippur, setting an example by eating at the pulpit. He worked tirelessly to combat the disease, even on the Sabbath. Salanter was known for lecturing on Judaism to Koenigsburg University students. He advocated vocational training for Jewish youth. He was also in favor of translating the Talmud into Hebrew . Salanter left no major works, but his many articles were published in collections such as Imrei Binah (Sayings of Wisdom), Or Yisrael (Light of Israel), and Even Yisrael (Rock of Israel).

1810 July 17, FIRST REFORM SERVICE (Germany) 

Was organized by Israel Jacobson in Seesen, Germany. Five years later, he began Reform services in his home in Berlin where he introduced prayers in German.

1811 GAZA (Eretz Israel)

The Jewish community decided to relocate to Hebron. They took their synagogue's 15th century doors and reset them in a synagogue in Hebron where they were destroyed by the Arabs in 1929.

1811 - 1884 JUDAH BENJAMIN (USA)

"Brains of the Confederacy". He served as a senator in the United States Senate from 1852 until the Civil War. Jefferson Davis appointed him Secretary of State of the Confederacy. After the war, he fled to England where he joined the English Bar.

1811 December 28, CIVIL RIGHTS (Germany) 

Were extended to Jews in Frankfurt.

1812 HANNAH ADAMS (1755-1831) (USA)

Wrote History of the Jews from the Destruction of Jerusalem to the Present Time. Adams, who was not Jewish, also included information on American Jewry and is considered one of the first woman professional writers in America.

1812 - 1878 BARON JOSEPH GUENZBURG (Günzburg) ( Russia)

Philanthropist, and banker. He was the founder and first president of The Society for the Promotion of Culture Among the Jews of Russia ( see 1863). He and later his children, were strong defenders of Jewish rights and great supporters of Jewish education. Guenzburg also supported The Society for Handicraft and Agricultural Work (ORT), and the Jewish Colonization Association (ICA). During the pogroms of 1881-2 he extended relief to hundreds of its victims.

1812 - 1871 BERNARD ILLOWY ( Bohemia –USA)

One of the first Orthodox rabbis in the USA. In addition to ordination by Rabbi Moses Sofer (the Hatam Sofer) he also held a PHD and spoke many languages fluently, including Latin. Illowy served in a number of communities and frequently wrote articles stressing the importance of practicing traditional Judaism.

1812 NAPOLEON (France) 

Began his Russian campaign. Hasidim in Russia debated whether supporting Napoleon against the Czar would speed up the coming of the Messiah. In Western Europe many of the civil restrictions on the Jews fell wherever Napoleon conquered, although this did not take place in Russia.

1812 January 21, - 1875 MOSES HESS (Germany) 

Author, socialist, and forerunner of the Zionist movement. In his book Rome and Jerusalem (1862), he based German anti-Semitism on race and nationhood and advised Jews to accept the fact and revive their own state in Eretz Israel. Hess, a socialist, orginally worked with Marx and Engels but grew disillusioned with the idea that a "progressive society would eradicate anti-Semitism".

1812 March 11, PRUSSIAN JEWS WERE GRANTED CIVIL RIGHTS (Germany)

Chancellor Karl August von Hardenburg with the approval of king Frederick William III (1770-1840) announced the full rights being extended to Jews of the Prussian Monarchy. Jews were still not allowed to be appointed to judicial and administrative offices. One of the other directives was that Jews now had to adopt family names. This directly led to the publishing of David Friedlander’s call for a radical change in synagogue service, including substituting German for Hebrew, and deleting most references of the destruction of out “ancient homeland”. “Prussia is out fatherland and German is out mother-tongue (Muttersprache)”

1812 June 18, WAR OF 1812

Was declared by Congress. During the war, John Ordroneaux, a naval commander, sank five British ships in one battle and was raised to the rank of commodore. In 1814, at the Battle of Fort McHenry, there were 30 Jews in the garrison. Its defense inspired the composition of the "Star Spangled Banner". Another Jew, Captain Mordecai Myers, became a hero when he saved more then 200 men, as well as most of the supplies from sinking boats. He later became one of the first Jews to settle in western New York.

1812 December 4, ARGENTINA

Though the Inquisition would only officially be abolished the following year, President Bernardino Rivadavia (1780-1845) called for freedom of immigration and promised the preservation of Jews' basic human rights.

1813 - 1893 ISAAC MEIR DICK (Lithuania)

First Yiddish author to use humor rather than satire. He also wrote in Hebrew and many of his characters were later adopted by Sholem Aleichem and I.L. Peretz. In all, he wrote over 300 stories, and a two volume collection of his Yiddish humor was published.

1813 March 24, ARGENTINA

The Inquisition was officially abolished. Two months later, the Assembly passed regulations allowing freedom to practice religion in one's home.

1814 March 29, DENMARK

The king officially allowed Jews to find employment in all professions and made racial and religious discrimination punishable by law.

1814 July 21, PORTUGAL

King Ferdinand VII re-established the Inquisition six years after it was abolished by Joseph Boneparte.

1815 - 1871 (19 Tevet 5631) ABRAHAM SAMUEL BENJAMIN (The Ktav Sofer) (Hungary)

Rabbi, educator, and Orthodox leader of Hungarian Jewry. He was the son of Moses Sofer and took his father's place upon his death in 1839. His responsa and clarifications on the Torah were published under the title Ktav Sofer.

1815 - 1905 ISAAC HIRSCH WEISS (Moravia)

Scholar and writer. Weiss taught at the Vienna Beit Hamidrash and believed in a combination of tradition and secular culture. His most famous work was Dor Dor ve-Dorshav, in which he traces the history and development of the Oral Law from its inception until the expulsion from Spain.

1815 - 1865 ROBERT REMAK (Posen, Poland)

One of the founders of modern neurology. He introduced the use of electricity in the treatment of neurological disorders.

1815 YIDDISH

The earliest Hasidic Yiddish works were published. The books Shivchei Ha Besht (In praise of the Baal Shem Tov) and Stories of Rabbi Nahman of Bratslav were published in the same year.

1815 - 1863 Civil rights lost (Corfu)

After enjoying full rights under the French (1797-1799 and 1805-15), Corfu became a protectorate of England . As a result Jews were forbidden to practice in the courts, and lost many of their rights. On June 2, 1864 Corfu was annexed to Greece and the Jews were officially granted equal rights, although in reality they were prevented from holding any public office and often attacked at polling stations.

1815 ESTHER EMANUEL (Louis Grafemes)

Dressed as a man, she joined the German army to be near her husband. She was promoted to sergeant major and decorated with the Iron Cross. Only after her husband's death did her true identity become known.

1815 - 1863 Jewish civil rights lost (Corfu)

After enjoying full rights under the French (1797-1799 and 1805-15), Corfu became a protectorate of England. As a result Jews were forbidden to practice in the courts, and lost many of their rights. On June 2, 1864 Corfu was annexed to Greece. Officially Jews were granted equal rights, although in reality, they were prevented from holding any public office and often attacked at polling stations

1815 March 6, LUBEK (Germany) 

With the defeat of Napoleon, new restrictions were imposed on the Jews all over Europe. In Lubek, the guilds demanded and obtained a decree expelling all Jews.

1815 June 8, NAPOLEON'S DEFEAT AT WATERLOO, CONGRESS OF VIENNA 

The immediate effect on the Jews of Napoleon's deposition was a return to their previous lack of freedom. At the Vienna Congress, Jews sent a Christian attorney, Carl Buchortz, to act on their behalf. An agreement was reached whereby "Jews were given rights in proportion to accepting the duties of citizenship." This was the first time that Jewish rights became a European political issue.

1816 - 1882 COUNT ARTHUR DE GOBINEAU (France)

Radical author, he upheld the credo of purity of race. In his book The Inequality of Human Races Gobineau "proved" that only the white or "Aryan" race was capable of preserving civilization. His works inspired Alfred Rosenberg (Nazi theorist).

1816 - 1907 MORITZ STEINSCHNEIDER (Hungary)

Teacher and scholar known as the "Father of modern Jewish bibliography". A prodigious author in his own right, he showed how classical Greek knowledge was transmitted through Hebrew and Arabic to Western Europe. He cataloged all the Jewish writers in Arabic, along with their bibliographies and biographies. As a teacher, he counted among his students Judah Magnes, Ignaz Goldziher, Solomon Schechter and Hayyim Brody.

1816 MUNICH (Bavaria, Germany)

Jews were allowed to bury their dead within the city limits. Until this time, all the Jewish dead had to be transported to Kriegshaber for burial. This marked the beginning of the official Jewish presence in Munich.

1816 - 1841 EDWARD DAVIS ("Teddy the Jewboy") (Australia)

Australian Highwayman. Davis was born in London and deported to Australia in 1832 for stealing five shillings. After his arrival in Australia he escaped and organized a gang of runaway convicts known as the Teddy and the Jewboy gang. Davis was considered a kind of "Robin Hood" for his help to the poor, polite language, and refusal to engage in violence. Although Davis only used force in self-defense, his luck failed him when in December 1840, one of his men killed a shopkeeper. Davis and five of his men were caught and convicted. He was accompanied by the hazzan of the Sydney Synagogue when he was hung. His brother John was at the same time police chief in Penrith and his nephew became speaker of the Tasmanian House of Assembly. Many former deportees formed the basis for the Australian Jewish community.

1816 - 1909 (29 Av 5669) SAMUEL SALANT (Chief Rabbi of Jerusalem) (Eretz Israel) 

The son-in-law of Joseph Salant. He arrived in Jerusalem in 1841 and proceeded to become one of the most influential figures in Eretz Israel. During his time as chief rabbi, the population of Jerusalem grew from 9000 to 40,000 Jews. Salant was behind the establishing of educational facilities which would include instruction of Arabic and Hebrew. He was one of the founders of Bikur Holim (Cholim) hospital and encouraged people to move into the "new" neighborhoods outside the old city walls.

1816 December 30, THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR EVANGELIZING THE JEWS (New York, USA)

Was formed in New York. Its founders included Joseph Boudinot, a former president of the Continental Congress, and John Quincy Adams, then secretary of state. Many other such societies were organized, leading the Jewish community to publish pamphlets and articles against these efforts. The first pamphlet, Israel Vindicated (1820) was published by Abraham Colins.

1817 - 1896 ADAM GIMBEL (USA)

A poor immigrant from Bavaria, he built a retail empire including Saks Fifth Avenue and, of course, Gimbels.

1817 - 1891 HEINRICH GRAETZ (Germany)

Celebrated historian, his works were based on original sources. Though he was sometimes biased, especially when it came to Eastern-European Jewry, his works on history are nevertheless considered monumental even today.

1817 MIR (Poland)

Rabbi Samuel Tiktinski (c. 1883) founded a Torah college (yeshiva) which eventually served five hundred students and was renowned throughout the Jewish world.

1817 WITHIN TWO YEARS OF NAPOLEON'S DEFEAT (Germany, Austria)

Prussia, Austria and the Church (Pope Pious VII) forbade liberal movements. In Werger, the cry "Hep, Hep" (Hierosolyma est Perdita - Jerusalem is destroyed) rang through the streets. In Heidelburg, the criminal rapist of a Jewish girl was freed by a mob.

1817 - 1896 (21 Adar 5656) ISAAC ELCHANAN SPECTOR (Kovno, Russia)

Considered the leading Russian rabbinic scholar of his day. Spector, who was active in many aspects of Jewish life, was a supporter of the Hovevei Zion movement, declaring it a mitzvah (religious duty) to settle in Eretz Israel. He fought for the right of Jewish soldiers to obtain kosher food and against a ban on ritual slaughter proposed by the Russian government. His considerable responsa were published in three parts: Beer Yitzchok, Nachal Yitzchok, and En Yitzchok (the Well, Stream, and Spring of Isaac).

1817 - 1889 MORDECAI ELIASBERG (Lithuania-Latvia)

Rabbi and leader in the Hovevei Zion movement. He took a unusual position regarding the “Haskalah” supporting their drive for equal rights and vocational training, as long as it did not weaken religion. He wrote 24 works including his responsa Terumat Yad (Donation of a Hand) and Shvil ha-Zahav (The Golden Path), which discussed the importance of settling the land of Israel In the controversial discussion in 1889 regarding the sabbatical year, he proposed that agricultural work continue.

1817 - 1893 (28 Av 5453) NAPHTALI ZEVI YEHUDA BERLIN (the Netziv) (Belorus, Russia) 

Head of the Volozhin Yeshiva, which grew to over 400 students during his time. He was both a scholar and an organizer, and the yeshiva reached its zenith under his guidance. His works include Emek Davar, a commentary on the Torah, and Emek Hanatziv, a commentary on the Sifri. He was among the first religious leaders to encourage weekly study of the Torah portion. He joined the Hovevei Zion movement, which urged Orthodox Jews to support settlement in Eretz Israel. In 1892 the Russian government closed his yeshiva, and he felt that his place was with his community despite his great desire to go to Eretz Israel. His health rapidly deteriorated and he died shortly after.

1817 May 24, MINISTRY OF RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS (Russia)

Was set up by Alexander I. He appointed Prince Alexander Golitsyn, of the Russian Bible Society as its head. Golotsyn in turn created the Israelitish-Christian Society, offering financial incentives, free land ,as well as other privileges to those Jews who would convert.

1818 - 1864 ISRAEL JOSEPH BENJAMIN (Benjamin II)

Traveler and explorer. Benjamin fashioned himself after Benjamin of Tudela (1154) and undertook to find the 10 lost tribes. His travels took him throughout the Far East as well as North Africa. His exploits and information on the Jewish communities he visited were published as Sefer Masei Yisrael (The Book of the Travels of Israel).

1818 JOHN ADAMS (1735-1826) (USA)

Statesman and President. In a letter to Mordecai Manuel Noah, he wrote: "I wish your nation may be admitted to all the privileges of citizens in every country of the world." Regarding the re-establishment of a Jewish state, he wrote in the same year: "I really wish the Jews again in Judea an independent nation."

1818 - 1876 LUDWIG TRAUBE (Germany)

Founder of experimental pathology. He gained renown for his research on diseases of the lungs, heart, and kidneys.

1818 May 5, - 1883 KARL MARX (Father of Communism)(Germany) 

Converted to Protestantism as a child. He embraced Lutheran anti-Judaism and charged that the basis for Judaism is greed and that social emancipation could only be accomplished by freeing society from commercialism, which was associated with Jews. Although many Jews embraced Communism as a panacea, many fled to the haven of socialism or capitalism. Still, the Capitalists call the Jews Communists and vice versa. Marx's theories were published under the title Das Kapital in 1867.

1818 October 18, HAMBURG (Germany) 

Dedication of the Reform Temple, the first temple established specifically for that purpose. A year later, the temple composed a new prayer book, deleting any mention of the Messiah and the return to the Holy Land.

1819 - 1900 ISAAC MEYER WISE (USA) 

Emigrating to New York in 1846, he later settled in Cincinnati where he became the head of the American Reform movement. He was responsible for the founding of the Hebrew Union College and the Union of American Hebrew Congregations.

1819 - 1880 JACQUES OFFENBACH (France)

Composer. Son of a cantor, he composed over one hundred operettas including Tales of Hoffman. His Paris Life, Blue Beard, and Beautiful Helen are the best of French comic operas.

1819 August 2, GERMAN POGROMS

Began in Lubeck, and Bremen. They soon spread to Bamberg, Heidelberg, Frankfurt, Mannheim, and Hamburg. Most of the riots were the consequence of rising nationalism (see 1817), the defeat of the French, and the anti-liberalism that resulted from it all.

1819 August 31, HAIM FARHI (Acre, Eretz Israel) 

Was murdered on the command of Abdullah Pasha. Farhi was the head of an important banking family, which had been influential in helping Abdullah come to power. Farhi had previously narrowly escaped death at the hands of Abdullah's predecessor, Ahmad al-Jazzar Pasha. During Napoleon's siege of Acre in 1799, Farhi refused Napoleon's offer of a promised Jewish independence and defended the city. Farhi was warned that his former backer had a change of heart but he refused to flee, fearing a backlash against the Jews in the Galilee. He was noted for his generous philanthropy, especially in Acre and Damascus.

1819 November 27, FOUNDING OF THE VEREIN FUER CULTUR UND WISSENSCHAFT DER JUDEN, (The Society for Culture and Science of Judaism) (Germany) 

Set up by Leopold Zunz and Eduard Gans. It delved into Jewish history, culture, and literature using scientific methods of criticism and assessment. The Society lasted less then five years. Gans and many others converted to Christianity.

1820 - 1899 (5 Av 5659) AZRIEL HILDESHEIMER (Germany)

Rabbi, educator, and leader of Orthodox Jewry. Hildesheimer was one of the few Orthodox rabbis to have both a secular and religious education. After studying Semitics, philosophy, and history he received his doctorate in 1846 from the University of Halle. He served as a Rabbi in Eisenstadt where he was criticized for establishing a school which also taught secular subjects. Though a strong opponent of the Reform movement, Hildesheimer tried to find common ground between the Reform and Orthodox movements in Hungary but eventually gave up in frustration. Moving to Berlin he became Rabbi of congregation Adass Jisroel and founded the first rabbinical seminary in Germany where he implemented the philosophies of his friend, Samson Rafael Hirsch. Hildesheimer was an active supporter of Jewish life in Eretz Israel and helped improve educational standards there as well as establishing an orphanage in 1879. He was the author of numerous responsa as well as a new edition of Halachot Gedolot, a halachic code belonging to the Geonic period.

1820 GRODNO (Poland)

Ritual murder libel was provoked by the Jesuits.

1820 - 1880 SECOND WAVE OF JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO AMERICA (USA)

The Jewish population of the United States rose from 10,000 to 250,000. (From 1830-1870 mostly German Jews arrived.)

1820 March 4, ALEXANDER I (Russia) 

Prohibited the employment of Christian servants by Jews.

1820 March 9, SPAIN

A royal decree officially abolished the Spanish Inquisition, though in reality it was actually only brought to an end on July 15, 1834.

1821 December 24, - 1891 LEON (YEHUDA) PINSKER (Russia)

Renowned physician and early Zionist. Pinsker's conduct during the cholera epidemic of 1848 earned him respect and admiration. His ideas on Zionism were set out in his pamphlet "Auto-Emancipation" (see 1887), which was the first textbook analysis of Modern Zionism. Pinsker believed in the purchasing of land and immigration of Jews as a first step in solving the problem of anti-Semitism.

1822 MORDECHAI MANUEL NOAH (New York City, USA)

When some protested that it would mean that a Jew can hang a Christian, he was reported to reply "a mighty poor sort of Christian would require hanging."

1822 - 1866 ALEXANDER SALMON (England-Tahiti)

While on a trip to the South Seas, he met and fell in love with the beautiful 20 year old princess of the Teva clan, Marau Taaroa. Although according to law it was illegal to marry a foreigner, Queen Pomare IV (Aimata), by royal decree, made a three day exception, during which time Salmon and the princess were married. Their daughter Joanna, was the last queen of the Island and their son Tati befriended Robert Louis Stevenson. Salmon became a spokesman for the islanders. Marau Taaroa's memoirs were edited by Henry Adams, in 1901.

1822 - 1886 JACOB SAPHIR (Vilna -Jerusalem)

Scholar, linguist, traveler, fundraiser and author. Saphir who wrote Hebrew and Arabic fluently, was also familiar with Latin. He served as an emissary of the Perushim community of Jerusalem raising funds for the building of the Hurvah synagogue. He was one of the first to see and realize the importance of the Cairo Geneizah. Saphir traveled to Yemen where he spent a long time researching and documenting the Jewish community, before traveling to India, Australia and Ceylon. He described his travels in Even Sapir (“Sapphire”) also published as Sefer Maasah Teiman (“Travels to Yemen”). His Iggeret Teman sheinit (“The second Epistle to Yemen”) was instrumental in stopping the career of the false messiah and con man Judah ben Shalom.

1823 AFFAIR OF THE HATS (Tunisia)

The local bey (ruler) ordered all Jews, whether locals or foreigners, to wear a three corner cap. Despite the protests of European countries, the order was only rescinded seven years later when a new bey (Ahmad) came to power

1823 BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT

Owed more than 21% of its public debt to Jews.

1823 - 1852 FERDINAND GOTTHOLD EISENSTEIN (Germany)

One of the most noted mathematicians of his day, especially in the field of algebra.

1823 - 1897 SABATO MORAIS (Italy-USA)

Hazzan, rabbi and reformist. He broke with the Pittsburgh Platform (see 1885) and formed his own more traditional branch of Judaism. He was a professor of Bible at Maimonides College in Philadelphia and one of the founders of the Jewish Theological Seminary in New York.

1823 CZAR ALEXANDER I (Russia) 

Banned Jews from leasing farming lands and even living in small villages. Alexander, afraid the Jews would have undo influence on local peasants, decided to force them to move to larger cities where it would be easier to keep an eye on them.

1823 - 1892 ERNEST RENAN (France)

French philosopher, historian and Semitic Philologist. Some have considered him the "Father of anti-Semitic anthropology" for his description of Jews as selfish exploiters trying to entrap "honest Christians", and his belief that the Semites were " an incomplete race. " . This being said he did not belief that Jewish people constitute a biological racial entity.

1823 THE FIRST AMERICAN JEWISH PERIODICAL (USA)

The Jew was published by S. H. Jackson. His aim was to try to combat Christian missionaries. The first Anglo-Jewish monthly, The Occident, was later established (1843) by the Rabbi, educator and writer Isaac Leeser.

1824 ENGLAND

The society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, S.P.C.A., was founded by Louis Gompertz.

1824 - 1904 KALONYMUS ZE'EV WISSOTZKY (Russia)

Merchant and philanthropist. Wissotzky was one of the earliest supporters of the Zionist movement. He established a successful tea house which still bears his name. Upon his death, he left his share of the business (one million Rubles) to charity, part of which went to found the Technion in Haifa.

1824 - 1883 SIR GEORGE JESSEL (England)

First Jew to become a judge in England. His greatest contribution was in English equity law.

1824 DAVID D’BETH HILLEL (Lithuania- Eretz Israel- India)

A Jewish scholar, set out on a voyage, to discover and report on unknown Jewish communities of the East and the “Lost Tribes of Israel.” He left Safed where he had settled with followers of the Vilna Gaon around 1815. His book was entitled Travels from Jerusalem through Arabia, Kurdistan, Part of Persia and India to Madras 1824–32. He traveled though Syria, Kurdistan, Persia and India, studying the socio- economics, geography, and languages of Jews in far flung communities. He died on a second voyage to India in 1846.

1824 - 1898 (19 Sivan 5658) SAMUEL MOHILEVER (Russia) 

talmudic scholar and one of the leading Orthodox rabbis of Eastern Europe. A graduate from the famous Volozhin Yeshiva, he was conversant in math, engineering, and a number of languages. Mohilever encouraged Baron Edmond de Rothschild to support the resettling of Russian families in Eretz Israel and was a mediator between the settlers and Rothschild in various disagreements which arose. He was the founder of Mizrachi, a religious Zionist organization, and one of the founders of the Hovevei Zion (Lovers of Zion, 1881).

1824 January 4, THE FIRST HEBREW CONGREGATION IN THE MID-WEST (Cincinnati, Ohio, USA)

Bene Israel (Sons of Israel) was established at the home of Morris Moses and under the leadership of Joseph Jonas (the first permanent Jewish settler in Ohio). Like other congregationss of its kind in the newly settled territories, they waited until there was a quota of ten men and a Sefer Torah had arrived.

1824 August 10, ALL FOREIGN JEWS WERE PROHIBITED FROM SETTLING IN RUSSIA 

Alexander I, after an initial period of liberalism, reverted to the anti-Jewish position of his predecessors. He began with forbidding Jews to have Christian servants and culminated just before his death with banishing all Jews from larger villages in the Mohilev and Vitbesk districts.

1825 - 1864 FERDINAND LASSALLE (Germany)

Builder of the German Labor movement and Social Democracy. He rejected Marx in favor of reform and universal suffrage, fighting for the right of all to vote. Those who were against his new ideas called Lassalle "The terrible Jew". He was killed in a duel over a woman.

1825 - 1920 HENRIETTE BENAS GOLDSCHMIDT (Germany)

Educator and women's activist. In 1865, she helped organize the First Conference of German Women, at which they established the General Association of German Women (Allgemeiner Deutscher Frauenverein). In 1871, she founded The Association for Family and Popular Education (Verein für Familien- und Volkserziehung). The Association established educational facilities for women from preschool up to the Leipzig College for Women.

1825 - 1855 REIGN OF CZAR NICHOLAS I, BROTHER OF ALEXANDER (1796-1889) (Russia) 

Made nervous by liberal developments in neighboring countries, he isolated Russia and banned Western ideas and liberalism. Half of the twelve thousand anti-Jewish laws passed between 1649-1881 originated during his reign. As an officer Nicholas had written in his diary that the Jews were "leeches who attach themselves to the populace and suck its blood."

1825 January 13, RUSSIA 

Prior to his death, Alexander I expelled all the Jews from Mohilev and Vitebsk.

1825 January 16, REFORMED SOCIETY OF ISRAELITES (Charleston, South Carolina, USA)

Was founded by forty seven members of the Kahal Kodesh Beth Elohim synagogue after their petition to institute "reform" was rejected. This marked the beginning of Reform Judaism in North America. The movement received further support with the immigration of German Jews, including reform leaders, to the United States after the revolution of 1848 The Charleston community was one of the largest and wealthiest in North America at that time.

1825 September, MORDECHAI MANUEL NOAH (USA) 

Led a parade in New York City declaring Grand Island a Jewish city. The 2500 acre Island was bought by Samuel Legget. It was part of Noah's colonization dream to provide a refuge for his Jewish brethren. He was to call his city Ararat. Few people took him up on his dream and the plan soon disintegrated.

1826 EZEKIEL BEN JOSEPH NISSIM MENAHEM GABBAI (Baghdad)

Was executed together with his brother Ezra, after a libel was brought against them. Gabbai aka Baghdadli, was a important banker serving as the personal banker to Sultan Mahmud II. He played a pivotal role in helping suppress a rebellion against the sultan which earned him many enemies. Gabbai used his office many times to help the Baghdad Jewish community. His grandson Ezekiel Gabbai (1825-1898) became the first Jew to serve in the Ottoman Ministry of Education and later became president of the Supreme Criminal court.

1826 March 6, KAISER FRANCIS II (Austria)

In reaction to the immigration of Jews to Eretz Israel, the Austro-Hungarian Kaiser (and last holy Roman Emperor ) passed a law forbidding secret immigration or the removal of funds from the empire.

1826 July 26, LAST KNOWN AUTO DA FE (Valencia, Spain)

A poor school master was executed for adhering to Judaism. The Auto da Fe ceremony, accompanied by vitriolic sermons, had served to announce the punishments of those who were deemed guilty by the Inquisition of "backsliding". Often, but not always, those deemed guilty were burned at the stake (quemadero). It is estimated that approximately 30,000 people lost their lives, with hundreds of thousand receiving lesser punishments during the almost 350 years that the Inquisition was in existence.

1826 August 20, POPE LEO XII

Prohibited Jews from leaving the Rome ghetto without a written permit from the Criminal Tribunal. Jews meeting Christians while outside the ghetto were forbidden from speaking to them in a "familiar way".He also rebuilt the ghetto in Ancona, which had been demolished by Napoleon.

1827 ABOLITION OF THE MORE JUDAICO (the Jewish oath) (France)

France becomes one of the first countries (after Holland in 1818) to abolish the oath. The More Judaico was the oath that a Jew had to take when bringing a gentile to court. This degrading oath had been in existence since Emperor Justinian (see 615) and was used throughout most of Europe.

1827 - 1900 MENDEL DINESS (Mendenhall) (Odessa- Jerusalem –Washington)

The first Jewish photographer of Jerusalem. Diness had been sent by his father to study in Jerusalem after he began to show interest in the haskalah movement. He became a watchmaker but soon fell under the influence of a local Christian missionary and converted. He was introduced to James Graham a photographer who taught him the trade and with whom he made many photographs. Diness moved to the USA where he changed his name to Mendenhall where his plates lay in obscurity until 1989.

1827 January,

Through cardinal Olivieri (assessor of Holy See) denied a request by cardinal Cesarei Leoni archbishop of Jesi ( Ancona Italy), to allow Christians work in Jewish houses on the Shabbat. He confirmed the ruling of The Third Lateran Council (1179) and Gregory IX (1233) prohibiting Jews from employing Christians .

1827 September 7, CANTONIST EDICT OF NICHOLAS I (Russia) 

Czar Nicholas I proclaimed his Statute of Conscription and Military Service which allowed Jewish youths between 12 and 18 to be forcibly conscripted into the army and forced to serve for 25 years. Although drafting of 18 year old's for 25 years or service had been in effect since the 17th century, this statute made military service compulsory. A quota was placed on the Jewish community. Often children were simply kidnapped, which was usually done via an agent called a "Khapper" (grabber in Yiddish), who often disregarded the official minimum age of 12 and took children as young as 8 in order to fill their quota. One of Nicholas' goals was to estrange as many children as possible from the Jewish religion, and he encouraged them to change their names and accept baptism. Approximately 70,000 Jewish soldiers converted to Christianity during the 19th century.

1828 - 1848 JULIUS FERDINAND COHN (Germany)

Botanist and father of bacteriology. He proved the existence of chlorophyll and was the first to define the nature of bacteria. Cohn invented a method of filtering water which was instrumental in halting the cholera epidemic of 1852. In Breslau he was denied a doctorate because he refused to convert, but eventually he received one in Berlin.

1828 - 1903 NAHUM SALOMON (Coventry, England)

Inventor, first manufacturer of bicycles, and the man who introduced the sewing machine to England. He also helped to develop the saccharin industry.

1829 ISAAC JOST (Germany) (1793-1860)

Published the first history of the Jews by a Jew since Josephus, preceding Graetz by almost 50 years. As an educator and histographer, his approach was purely rationalistic, based on modern research and reflected his position of support for the Reform movement. Jost began his history with the Maccabees and ended in the nineteenth century.

1829 October 14, - 1884 EDWARD LASKER (Germany)

One of the first German Jews to enter politics. A defender of his people, he introduced the law which gave the Orthodox the right to establish their own school system.

1829 November 16, - 1894 ANTON RUBINSTEIN (Russia) 

Renowned Russian pianist and composer. He was a rival of Liszt and a pupil of Chopin. Rubinstein founded the Russian Music Society and became the first head of the St. Petersberg Conservatory. His works included ten symphonies, among them the Ocean Symphony and over 100 vocal pieces containing such operas such as The Demon (1871), The Maccabees (1875), Nero (1879), Sulamith (1883) and Moses (1887). Even today, he is considered one of the greatest pianists of all times.

1830 ABOLITION OF THE MORE JUDAICO (France)

The Jewish oath was abolished in France.

1830 - 1919 ABRAHAM JACOBI (Germany)

"Father of Pediatrics". In 1851 he was arrested and charged with treason for belonging to a revolutionary group. Two years later he was released and became a professor of children's diseases at the National Medical College.

1830 - 1909 LINA MORGENSTERN (Germany)

Educator and philanthropist. Morgenstern began her work by opening a school for the disadvantaged when she was only 18. She was active in many branches of philanthropy but most of her efforts went into education. She established the first free kitchens in Germany in 1866 as well as a society to help educate and defend the rights of women. She also authored a book on education Das Paradies der Kinderheit.

1830 - 1831 POLAND

Revolted against Russia. Even during the revolt, General Chlopicki expelled the Jews from the National Guard at the insistence of the officers. The Jews formed their own unit called "the Beardlings".

1830 - 1831 MAZZINI'S YOUNG ITALY

This revolution - in which many Jews took part - was defeated.

1830 Rabbi Aaron Levy arrives in Australia

Rabbi Levy was sent by Rabbi Solomon Hershel chief rabbi of London, to help attain a get (divorce) from a male convict sent to Australia. He brought the first sefer torah (Torah scroll) and siddurim (prayer books). During his four month stay, he helped establish guidelines for religious practice and services. Until his arrival, there being few Jewish women, all children of mixed marriages had been considered Jewish, by agreement this was to end within two years.

1830 July 10, - 1903 CAMILLE PISSARRO (France)

Of Sephardic extraction, he became an important Impressionist painter and teacher. He mostly painted the busy streets of Paris and landscapes. He was associated with Monet and Corot. In the last years of his life he achieved recognition, and although suffering from an eye ailment painted 160 works in the last three years of his life.

1830 October 18, SEARCHING FOR THE TEN TRIBES (Safed)

Israel of Shklov officially delegates Baruch ben Samuel of Pinsk to search for the lost ten tribes. He seems to have received support from leading Rabbis in Europe, including the Gaon of Pinsk and Rabbi Akiva Eiger. He was financed by among others, Zvi Hersh Lehren (1784-1853 head of the clerks organization of the holy land ( pekidim v'amarkalim ) in Amsterdam. Baruch was murdered by Yemini Iman Yahya on January 12 1834.

1831 EMANCIPATION OF JEWS IN JAMAICA

Jews had been present in Jamaica since the time of the British conquest in 1655, yet they were not allowed to vote until this date. Within fifteen years, eight of the 47 members of the House of Assembly (which didn't meet on Day of Atonement) were Jewish.

1831 - 1896 BARON MAURICE DE HIRSCH (France) 

Banker and philanthropist, he tried at first to teach agriculture to Jews in Russia. When that failed, he established the Baron de Hirsch Fund of New York and later the Jewish Colonial Association (JCA). Both of these plans attempted to resettle the Jews in lands outside of Europe, especially Argentine rural areas, but both met with limited success. At the beginning of the 20th century the JCA also administered Baron Edmond de Rothschild's colonies in Eretz Israel. In 1873, Baron de Hirsch donated one million francs to the Alliance Israelite Universelle for its school system (see 1860).

1831 - 1833 EGYPTIAN – OTTOMAN WAR

Led by his son Ibrahim Pasha (1789-1848), Muhammad Ali (1769-1849) the Armenian born ruler of Egypt succeeded in conquering much of the middle east. With Constantinople now being threatened, the French and British forced him to cease his attack and eventually retreat. He controlled the holy land for almost a decade, and encouraged greater tolerance toward Christian pilgrims. This lead to the growth of Christian Zionism, and increased their influence on the future of Eretz Israel.

1831 - 1892 JUDAH LEIB GORDON (Vilna, Lithuania- St. Petersburg, Russia)

Hebrew poet and secularist, whose works included Hakitsah ‘ami (Awake My People!) , Kotso shel yod (The Tip of the Yud [Hebrew letter]) and Tsidkiyahu be-vet ha-pekudot (Zedekiah in Prison). Gordon though supportive of the Zionist cause, preferred emigration to the USA rather than Eretz Israel until those there ‘eliminated religion from their lives’.

1831 THE “ORGANIC REGULATION (Romania)

Was the first “constitution” in the Danubian provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia (pre- Romania). All Jews were required to register with local authorities, and to indicate their professions in order that “those Jews who [cannot] demonstrate their usefulness [could] be expelled…”

1831 February 8, LOUIS PHILIPPE OF FRANCE 

Successor to Charles X, he ratified a motion which put Judaism on a par with Christianity and granted state support to synagogues and their Minister of Religion.

1832 - 1924 ARMIN VAMBERY (Hungary)

Linguist and Oriental traveler. In order to travel thoughout Persia, Armenia and Turkestan he took the name Rashid Effendi, assumed and successfully maintained the guise of a Sunni dervish, and traveled to places which no westerner had ever visited before. His book "Travels in Central Asia" became very popular. Vambery was a strong supporter of British expansionism and also served as foreign consultant to the Sultan of Turkey. In that position, although not a Zionist, he introduced Theodore Herzl to the Sultan in 1901.

1832 BENEDICT STILLING (Germany)

Proposed that transplants of the retina could cure certain types of blindness.

1832 CANADA

Granted political rights to Jews.

1832 ITALY

Giuseppe Mazzini organized a new society called Young Italy which many Jews joined. Their goal was to unify Italy. Although they were defeated by the French, one of his followers was Garibaldi, who later played an important role in unifying Italy.

1832 - 1911 SAMUEL MONTAGU, FIRST LORD SWAYTHLING (England) 

Banker, and philanthropist. Actually born Montagu Samuel, his name was switched when he attended grade school. In addition to being a successful banker, he served in Parliament from 1885 for 15 years and was responsible for the adoption of the metric system (Weights and Measures Act). Montagu was actively involved in many projects helping the poor and founded the Jewish Workingmen's Club. He was a practicing Orthodox Jew and founded the Federation of Synagogues (1887) which united most of the smaller congregations.

1832 November 3, JOACHIM LELEWEL (Poland)

A non-Jewish Polish revolutionist and historian. He called on the Jewish people to join in a revolution. He was influenced by Bartlomiej Beniowski, a Jewish Polish revolutionary into calling on Poles to help Jews to establish a homeland in Eretz Israel.

1833 ENGLAND

Jews were allowed to be admitted to the Bar. Two years later in 1835 Francis Goldsmid became the first Jewish barrister.

1833 October 29, HESSE-CASSEL (Germany) 

Was formally made part of the kingdom of Westphalia. All Jews, except for peddlers and petty traders, were granted civic equality. The other German kingdoms took nearly forty years to grant civic equality to their Jews.

1834 THE FIRST MODERN AGRICULTURAL SETTLEMENT

Was founding on Mt Meron (Jarmak), by Israel Baeck (1797-1874) with ten Hassidic families from Safed. Unfortunately the fall of Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt (1789-1848) in 1840, brought an end to the settlement. Today its remains are known as Churvat Baeck “ Baecks ruins”

C. 1834 - 1904 JOSEF HAYYIM Al-Hakham (Baghdad, Persia)

Jewish leader, Halachist and Chief Rabbi of Baghdad aka Ben Ish Ḥai. Joseph Hayyim is still renown today as one of the premier Halachists of the Sephardic community. He authored about 60 books on all aspects of Judaism; specifically halacha (" Rav Pe'alim") and aggadah ("Ben Yehoyada and Benayahou") (the part of the Talmud which does not deal with religious law). His major work was Ben Ish Chai ("Son of Man (who) Lives"), which discusses the weekly portion of the Torah mixed with practical halacha and Kabbalah.

1834 July 15, THE INQUISITION (Spain)

Was finally abolished by the Queen Mother, Maria Christina, after nearly three and one half centuries.

1834 July 24, HEBRON MASSACRE

Ibrahim Pasha sent in troops to quell a local revolt against his rule. Despite the fact that the Jews had played no part in the revolt (and had been assured of protection), the troops were allowed 6 hours in which to plunder and attack the community and Synagogues. Witnesses reported five girls raped and murdered as well as seven men killed.

1835 - 1909 CESARE LOMBROSO (Italy)

Father of modern criminology. His major work was entitled "Crime, Its Causes and Conditions". He also posited the theories that genius is a form of insanity and that criminal tendencies are hereditary. Lombroso later became interested in Zionism.

1835 DAVID SALOMON (1797-1873) (England)

Was the first Jew to be elected Sheriff of London. He was a successful banker who led the fight for Jewish equality in England. In 1855 he became Lord Mayor of London.

1835 CZAR NICHOLAS I (Russia) 

Similar to Catherine II, Nicholas ordered a Ukase (decree) which restricted the Pale even further banning Jews from living in a 25 mile zone along the western front as well as the cities of Kiev, Nikolaev and Sevastopol.

1835 - 1917 MENDELE MOCHER SFORIM (Shalom Jacob Abramowitz) (Russia)

Distinguished author and Haskalist (advocate of the Enlightenment Movement). His work focused on the life and problems of the Jewish masses in Russia. Although an unabashed champion of the simple Jew, he strongly criticized jewish life in the small towns and ghetto. At the same time he had no patience for what he saw as the trend in the Haskala for assimilation. Though he wrote in both Hebrew and Yiddish, he was renowned as the forerunner of populist Yiddish literature.

1835 March, BAB EL HOTA (Jerusalem)

A number of courtyards and houses near the Lions gate were purchased by Jews. Unfortunately, a local blood libel in 1838, although dismissed, created an environment of fear. This coupled with the distance from other Jewish houses and the decrease in the Jewish population after the epidemic of 1838-9, caused it to be abandoned.

1835 March 2, ELIEZER BREGMAN (GRODNO-BOHEMIA)

Reached Jerusalem. Bregman (1826-1896) a Russian financier and philanthropist tried a revolutionary model to help sustain Jewish immigrants. He analyzed in detail the possibilities for industry and trades in the holy land, with the idea that people should be able to provide for themselves and not rely on charity. This put him into direct conflict with Zvi Hirsch Lehren, who was in charge of the Halukah and whose view on the redemption of the land of Israel was anti-activist.

1836 LOUIS NAPOLEON (France)

Failed to capture Strasbourg and was exiled to America.

1836 SAMSON RAPHAEL HIRSCH

Published his Nineteen letters of Ben Uziel. This short work was written as an exchange of letters answering basic questions about Judaism. The Letters became very popular and was translated into many languages.

1836 THE FIRST HAKHAM BASHI (Ottoman Empire)

Moshe HaLevy (1872-1908), was appointed by Sultan Mahmud II. The title was taken from the words Hakhan (chacham) meaning sage and Bashi meaning head. Ostensibly he served as the chief Rabbi of the Ottoman Empire or of parts of it. Often the Hakham Bashi himself was not sufficiently learned to also serve as a Halachic authority. In addition to religious responsibilities, he was also in charge of collecting government taxes. Over the next few decades it grew in its importance, as Rabbis of higher stature assumed the office.

1836 - 1900 WILLIAM STEINITZ (Prague, Bohemia)

Known as the "Father of Modern Chess". Steinitz began as a brilliant talmudic scholar with an interest in mathematics. He won the world championship in Vienna by defeating Adolph Anderssen in 1866, and held on to the title until 1894 when he in turn was defeated by Emanuel Lasker. Steinitz is credited with developing the theory of chess that is based on science and math.

1836 July 7, GALICIA

Joseph II, in an effort to improve the educational status of rabbis, decreed that no rabbis could be appointed if they did not attend a university. Little came of his decree.

1836 November 5, POPE GREGORY XVI

Refused to stop the special cancellation tax which the Jews had to pay in lieu of running naked through the streets during the Saturnalia winter carnival. The race had been initiated by Pope Paul II in 1466. Pope Gregory XVI ruled: "It is not opportune to make any innovations" and affirmed its continuation.

1837 QUEEN VICTORIA (England)

Ascended the throne in England. During her reign there was a great increase in the number of Jews settling in England.

1837 - 1888 SAMUEL POLIAKOFF (Russia)

Railroad Baron. He built over 2500 Km of railroads as well as founding several banks. Though he refused to hire any Jews, he did, at the end of his life, play an active role in founding ORT and helped build the synagogue in St. Petersburg.

1837 1837 MOSES TITLEBAUM “aka Yismach Moshe” ( HUNGARY)

1837 MOSES TITLEBAUM “aka Yismach Moshe” ( HUNGARY) A leading Hassidic Rabbi, describing the troubles in Eretz Israel wrote “ It is the will of God. Not to go to the land of Israel.. Rather wait until the Messiah.” Titlebaum (1759 - 1841) was instrumental in bringing Hassidism to Hungary. He is known for his commentary Tefillah L’Moshe “A prayer to Moses” a commentary on psalms, a responsa Heishiv Moshe "Moses Responded", and Yismach Moshe "Moses Rejoiced” on the Torah.

1837 January 1, GALILEE EARTHQUAKE (Eretz Israel) 

Registering approximately 6.5 (in today’s terms) killed an estimated two thousand Jews perished mainly in Safed and Tiberius . Numerous monuments and archaeological sites were damaged. The Alsheich synagogue and the southern wall (containing the torah scrolls) of the Abuhav Synagogue were not affected. Many of the residents chose to resettle to Jerusalem and Hebron rather than rebuild. This led to the Jews becoming the largest ethnic population in Jerusalem before the end of the decade.rn

1838 FIRST HEBREW PRIMER FOR CHILDREN (USA)

Was published by Isaac Leeser in the USA.

1838 - 1875 GEORGE BIZET (Paris, France)

Composer of the opera "Carmen". He studied under Jacques Halevy (composer of "La Juive") and married his daughter.

1838 LETTERS ON EGYPT, EDOM AND THE HOLY LAND

Was published by Lord Alexander Lindsay (1821-1880) provided the first proposal by a major politician to resettle Jews in Palestine: The soil of "Palestine still enjoys her sabbaths, and only waits for the return of her banished children.

1838 - 1933 (24 Elul 5693) ISRAEL MEIR HACOHEN - THE CHOFETZ CHAIM (Hafetz Hayyim) (Radin, Poland) 

A prominent talmudic leader and author, he wrote commentaries on the Sifra and Mussar. In all, he composed over thirty works on Jewish ethics and laws, especially concentrating on the need to beware of slandering or "promoting a bad name". His Magnum Opus was the Mishna B'rurah, a guide to Jewish law in modern times. Earning his living as a teacher and later founding a yeshiva, he consistently refused a rabbinical position. This was partly based on his belief that "he who hates gifts shall live".

1838 PHILADELPHIA SUNDAY SCHOOL SOCIETY

Was established by Rebecca Graetz. Classes opened a month later on March 4, with six teachers and sixty students. It became the longest running Jewish Sunday school in American history. Only in 1993 did it merge with another school.rnrn

1838 - 1937 SARAH FRANKEL STERNBERG (Chenciny, Poland)

Religious leader who took over for her husband Hayyim Samuel Sternberg a his death. Hayyim Samuel Sternberg was Hasidic leader and student of the "Seer of Lublin".

1838 - 1912 YOEL MOSHE SALOMON (Eretz-Israel)

Printer, publisher, visionary and communal leader. Although he excelled in Talmudic studies and was ordained as a Rabbi he decided to study printing. Salomon began the first Hebrew language newspaper Ha Levanon but was forced to close it under pressure by some in the orthodox community. He helped establish new neighborhoods in Jerusalem including Nahalat Shiva and Sha'arei Hesed . Salomon believed in the importance of settling the land and helped form the Hevrat Yishuv Eretz Israel. He consulted with the Templers on agricultural grafting, and in 1878 helped found Petah Tikva.

1838 June 30, SWEDEN

The Swedish government passed a law abolishing discrimination against Jews. Unfortunately, this law was repealed due to public objections. Another 30 years were to pass before Jews were given the right to vote.

1838 July 5, SAFED ATTACKED

The Jewish community was attacked by Druze rebels. Ostensibly fighting against Ibrahim Pasha (see 1831), they attacked and defeated the Egyptian garrison outside Safed. The Jewish community was then singled out for 3 days of pillage. Many of the surviving Jews fled to Acre and Jerusalem.

1839 CLOTHES TAXÒ (Lithuania)

A special Jewish clothes tax was imposed in order to encourage Jews to forgo traditional dress. The right to wear a kippa cost five rubles a year.

1839 CENSUS

Organized by Montefiore, it found , 6,408 people Jews living in the country. This differed with the figure of 9,000 the 9,000 Jews reported by the British consul at the same time.

1839 - 1915 (11 Elul 5675) ISAAC JACOB REINES (Belarus-Lithuania) 

Founder of the Mizrachi Religious Zionist Movement. He founded an experimental yeshiva in which rabbis were trained to expound the Talmud and preach in Russian. The government closed it four years later. He became the rabbi in Lida and joined the Zionist movement in 1898. Reines was a strong backer of Herzl, even supporting his Uganda plan. His Mizrachi Movement was the first official religious Zionist party.

1839 PROPOSAL TO MOHAMMED ALI

Moses Montefiore proposed to Mohammed Ali (1769-1849) the setting up of Jewish agricultural settlement. He was supported by Rabbi Mordechai Tsoref Salomon (1812-1866) of Jerusalem who wished to establish a place for those “less gifted at study”, and where they could practice the agricultural “laws of the land”. There was strong opposition by sectors of the Perushim (descendants of the disciples of the Vilna Gaon) community. Ali turned down the proposal. Tsoref was the father of Yoel Moshe Solomon who helped create the Nakhalat Shiv'a ("the homestead of the seven") neighborhood (see Yoel Moshe Solomon).

1839 March 27, FORCED CONVERSIONS AT MASHHAD (Persia) 

Influenced by other anti-Jewish riots under Mohammad Shah Qajar (1808-1848), the local community attacked the Jewish quarter. The synagogue was destroyed, over 30 Jews were killed and the rest of the community was threatened with annihilation. Moslem leaders offered to prevent further riots on condition that the Jews convert, which they did. The Jews became known as jadīd al-Islām (Ar.) by Muslims and as /i> Mashhadis by themselves. In secret they continued to practice Judaism. Years later over than two-thirds of them left Mashad for Khurasan and Afghanistan, where they openly returned to Judaism

1839 June 11, LETTER TO MONTEFIORE

Was sent by leaders in the Perushim and Sephardic communities. In it, they supported agricultural work by Jews. Lehren (see 1784) the director of the Halukah was against it, believing that Jews should concentrate on study, and that the land is supposed to remain desolate until the coming of the Messiah.

1839 November 8, SULTAN ABD Al-MAJID 1823-1861 (Turkey)

Issued his declaration of rights known as the Hatt-i-Sherif. These new regulations were part of what was known as the Tanzimat ("reforms") which guaranteed equality of rights, security, and military service for all non-Muslim citizens.

1840 CLAUDE MONTEFIORE (London, England)

Founded an extremist Reform movement called Liberal Judaism. He supported the attempt by Oswald John Simons to establish a Jewish church. Montefiore considered Judaism to be a purely spiritual movement and opposed any form of Jewish nationalism, including Zionism.

1840 - 1898 (17 Iyar 5658) HERMAN ZVI SCHAPIRA (Lithuania-Germany) 

Rabbi, mathematician and Zionist leader. The Russian pogroms of 1881 convinced him that a more activist role was necessary and he was among the first members of the Hovevei Zion movement, and, while a professor at Heidelburg, devoted much of his time to the Zionist ideal. He proposed two revolutionary ideas. One, put forth at the first Zionist congress, was to establish a "general Jewish fund", which would buy up large parcels of land in Eretz Israel and lease them out for agricultural purposes, an idea which led to the establishment of the Jewish National Fund in 1901. His second idea, put forth in an article (1882), was the promotion of a plan to found the first Hebrew University in Eretz Israel.

1840 ISAAC LYON GOLDSMID (England)

Became the first Jew to be conferred as a baronet (knighthood). Goldsmid (1788-1861), a renowned philanthropist, was very active the of emancipation English Jewry. His barony was soon followed by those of Moses Montefiore, and Anthony Nathan Rothschild.

1840 JACOB HENLE (Germany)

Published Von den Miasman und Kontagien (On Miasmata and Contagia) in which he proposed that micro organism were the cause of many contagious diseases. Henle (1809–1885) is considered to be the father of modern histology and one of the pioneers of dermatopathology.

1840 (5600) THE YEAR OF REDEMPTION

Judah Alkalai (1798-1878) in his pamphlet Kol Korei asserted that according to the Zohar, the messiah could possibly come around the Jewish year 5600 -1840. This was echoed in Persia by Matthais ben Samuel Mizrahi in his booklet Kol Mevaser. The idea had been brewing over the past few decades, beginning with the conquests of Napoleon. It was fanned by the various uprisings in Europe, the anti-Jewish edicts in Russia, the takeover of the holy land by Muhammad Ali, and cholera epidemic of 1832. The belief also spread to North Africa particularly Tunis and Morocco although some, notably Moshe ben Jacob Turgerman, argued that the concept was a dangerous error. In Europe there was divergences of opinion some (Menashe of Ilia) called it a “ fools belief”, others including Aviezer of Ticktin, a student of the Vilna Gaon, among the Mitnagdim and R. Arye Leib of Shpola among the Hassidim supported the notion.

1840 February 5, DAMASCUS AFFAIR (Syria) 

A blood libel was started with the disappearance of Father Thomas, a Franciscan superior. After a "confession" was extracted from a Jewish barber, seven others were arrested, two of whom died under torture. The French consul Ratti Menton, accused the Jews of ritual murder and requested permission from Mahomet Ali to kill the rest of his suspects. Other Jews were arrested, including sixty three children who were starved to convince their parents to confess. Sir Moses Montefiore, Adolphe Cremieux, and Solomon Munk intervened on behalf of the Jews and in August the charges were dropped. This affair spurred early Zionist writers like Hess to promote the Zionist cause. The United States, England, Russia, Austria, and Prussia also lined up against France, although this had as much to do with international politics as their desire to defend human rights.

1840 March 28, - 1861 FREDERICK WILLIAM IV (1795-1861) (Prussia, Germany)

Elected emperor of Prussia. Frederick William was decidedly not an advocate of Jewish civil liberties and believed that they should only have rights within their own community.

1840 July 12, - 1908 ABRAHAM GOLDFADEN (Russia) 

"Father of Modern Jewish Theater". Goldfaden began his career by writing songs and was surprised to find them well received by the public. He composed dozens of songs, over 60 plays, and over 30 operas - all in Yiddish. Some of his plays were translated into Hebrew (Kuni Lemel) and are still produced today. After witnessing local pogroms, he decried assimilation as a solution and became a strong supporter of the Zionist cause. In his last play, Ben Ami, his hero leaves Russia after a pogrom and becomes a pioneer in Eretz Israel.

1840 July 25, ABRAHAM RICE (Reiss) (Germany-USA)

Became the first ordained orthodox Rabbi to land in America. Rice (c. 1800 – 1862). He trained in Germany and received ordination from Rabbi Abraham Bing at the Wurzburg Yeshiva. Rice settled in Baltimore and served at CongregationNidchei Yisroel. Conflicts arose regarding the congregants keeping of Shabbat etc which led to his leaving his position and founding his own congregation. Near the end of his life he was asked to return but he died soon after.

1840 August 11, ENGLAND 

Lord Henry Palmerston, the Foreign Secretary, in a letter to the ambassador in Constantinople wrote: "There exists...among the Jews...a strong notion that the time is approaching when their nation is to return to Palestine.... I instruct ... to strongly recommend to the Turkish Government ... to encourage the Jews of Europe to return to Palestine."

1840 August 28, SULTAN ABDUL MAJID (Ottoman Empire)

Under pressure from the Montefiore delegation and world opinion, released the nine survivors. Four had already died.

1840 September 25, LORD SHAFTESBURY (England)

Presented a paper to Foreign secretary Lord Palmerston (Henry John Temple). In it Shaftesbury (Anthony Ashley Cooper) called for the “recall of the Jews to their ancient land”. He believed that the return of the Jews to the land of Israel was not only a Biblical prophecy but in the best interests of British foreign policy.

1840 October 27, SULTAN ABDULMECID I (Ottoman empire)

Issued his Firman (royal decree) against blood libels. This was a consequence of both the notoriety of the Damascus blood libel, and his desire for acceptance into the European community. It stated in part " We cannot permit the Jewish nation, whose innocence for the crime….is evident, to be worried … as a consequence of accusations which have not the least foundation in truth...". Some historians claim than the mother of Sultan Abdulmecid I (1823-1861), Besma Allem, was of Georgian Jewish origin.

1841 VILNA (Lithuania)

Mordecai Aaron Guenzburg, together with the Hebrew writer Solomon Salkind, founded the first modern Jewish school in Lithuania. Guenzburg (1795-1846) attacked the Heder system of education. Although considered a Maskil (part of the "enlightenment movement"), he was a traditionalist who believed in the Torah. Guenzburg fought against both what he perceived as Orthodox extremism as well as the German Haskalah Movement. He served as the schools headmaster until his death.

1841 - 1842 EL SALVADOR

After the revolution it became an independent republic, with Dr. Juan Lindo serving as its president. Lindo, a descendent of Spanish and Portuguese Jews, was the founder of the National University of El Salvador, and author of the second constitution. His strong stand regarding education is reflected in his law which required each town with more then 150 people to erect a school. He also served as the president of Honduras (1847-1852).

1841 - 1920 MIRIAM MARKEL -MOSESSOHN (Russia)

Hebrew author and translator. She translated Herzl's Die linke Glocke (" The left Bell") from the German as well novels and a book on Jewish history Die Juden und die Kreuzfahrer by Isaac Asher Francolm published as Ha-Yehudim be-Anglia….. She was in correspondence with and respected by, many of the leaders of the Maskilim " enlightenment" movement. Y. L Gordon (1831–1892) dedicated his famous satire " Kotso shel Yod (The Tip of the Yod -1876) to her.

1841 April 24, MISSIONARY ACTIVITY

A severe ban against anyone attending a school supported by missionaries, or using a physician in a missionary supported hospital was issued by the Chief Rabbi of Constantinople. This was a reaction to increased missionary activity and actual conversions in the wake of the 1840 disappointment regarding the date of the coming of the messiah. Further bans were issued in Jerusalem and other parts of the Ottoman Empire and even Galicia. Prior to this, there had been some cooperation on practical issues between the Perushim leaders and some missionaries in Jerusalem.

1842 - 1885 PERETZ SMOLENSKIN (Russia-Austria)

Hebrew novelist laureate of the Haskalah. He started the monthly periodical Ha-Shachar (the Dawn) and is accredited with six novels including "The Wanderer in Life's Paths". Though he was not religious he was strongly nationalistic and opposed religious reform, fearing that it would weaken national feeling.

1842 TEMPLE HAR SINAI (USA)

America's first Reform synagogue was established in Baltimore, Maryland.

1842 January 27, LONDON (England) 

First English Reform synagogue was founded. It was known as the West London Synagogue for British Jews.

1843 - 1910 MOSES LOEB LILIENBLUM (Lithuania)

Haskalist, nationalist, and author. His early works denounced Orthodoxy for not replacing their "ancient texts" with new ideas. After the 1881-2 Russian riots, he joined Pinsker in calling for settlements in Eretz Israel. Lilienblum was opposed to any dilution of Zionism, such as Ahad Ha'am's cultural Zionism.

1843 RUSSIA

The Pale was further narrowed, displacing approximately 150,000 Jews. Sir Moses Montefiore traveled to Moscow in an unsuccessful attempt to intercede.

1843 - 1902 MARK ANTOKOLSKI ("Mordechai") (Russia)

A social-sculptor considered by many to be the father of modern Russian sculpture. He first began with Jewish themes. His statue "Ivan the Terrible" (1871) was purchased for the Hermitage Museum by Czar Alexander. Antokolski believed that sculpture was a social and humane ideal. After many anti-Semitic attacks he moved to Paris. He was a traditional Jew who believed that one day there would be a school of Jewish art. This came true with the foundation of the Bezalel Academy by his student Boris Schatz.

1843 May, JERUSALEM CONVERSIONS

After a three year deliberation, two former rabbis of the Perushim community, Eliezer Luria and Benjamin Goldberg were baptized by the Anglican Bishopric mission. A third Abraham Nissim Walfin withdrew before the actual conversion. Their conversion led to a ban (not always kept), on any contact with the Anglican mission. This included medical services which happened to provide New Testament bibles in Hebrew by every bedside. It took a further ten years for Jewish hospital to be established (the Rothschild hospital) in July 1854.

1843 September 29, POPE GREGORY XVI

Denied Klemens von Metternich’s (1773-1879) chief minister of the Austrian Empire appeal for Tolerance Towards Jews. The Pope replied that the restrictions placed on Jews have a sacred origin and cannot possibly be lightened. “the Jews are forbidden such ownership ( property) by the sacred Canons as a Nation of deicides and blasphemers of Christ,”

1843 October 13, B'NAI B'RITH (USA) 

Was founded under the leadership of Henry Jones at Sinsheimer's cafe on Essex Street in New York, to maintain orphanages and homes for the elderly and widows. It extended its work to many spheres of American Jewish life, including combating anti-Semitism (A.D.L.) and working with students on campus (Hillel). At the time of its founding, there were approximately 15,000 Jewsish in the United States. It was the first Jewish fraternal society in the world.

1844 GERMANY

First rabbinical conference between the Orthodox and Reform movements was held.

1844 - 1923 SARAH BERNHARDT (ROSINE BERNARD) (France)

A celebrated actress, she was the leading lady of the "Comedie Francaise". She was noted for her roles in plays by Racine and Sardou. Though her parents baptized her when she was a child, she remained proud of her Jewish heritage.

1844 - 1910 KARL LUEGER (Austria)

Founder of an anti-Semitic Austrian Catholic party, the Christian Social Party (in 1893). He became mayor of Vienna in 1897 (see 1897) and was a strong supporter of Christian Socialism. When asked why some of his friends are Jews he replied “ I decide who is a Jew”. Although later praised by Hitler. in Mein Kamph, in reality during his administration, the Jews of Vienna did not suffer more than anywhere else in Europe at the time

1844 - 1914 MORDEKHAI DISKIN (Russia-Eretz Israel)

Pioneer and educator. Diskin worked as both a coachman and a teacher of Jewish Studies. He opened his house in Jaffa for free to new settlers who needed medical treatment. Diskin helped found the first modern religious school in the country: Nezah Israel in Petah Tikvah. He wrote a number of monographs which describe the difficulties of the early settlers.

1844 December 31, BASKET TAX (Korobka) (Poland-Lithuania)

The right to collect the tax on kosher meat, and its by products (leather etc). Its origin is found in 17th century eastern Europe when it was established in some towns as a means to help their communities pay a special “Jews tax” to local authorities. Any funds left over were used to pay for the Rabbi’s salary and educational services. The right of collection of the Basket tax was auctioned off to the highest bidder. There was great opposition to this tax since it hurt the weaker levels of society making kosher meat prohibitive. In many places the “intelligentsia” and other “privileged” people received exemptions It was still in force until the 20th century.

1845 ALPHONSE TOUSSENEL (France)

French naturalist and writer, published The Jews, Kings of the Epoch: History of Financial Feudalism. Tossenel (1803-1885) promoted the idea that the "Jewish spirit" was identical with capitalism and money-worship. "Every unproductive parasite living off the work of someone else, Jew, usurer, money-dealer - all are synonymous to me." He was influential in the development of German antisemitism in the 1880's.

1845 DR. DAVID CAMDEN DE LEON (1816-1872) (USA)

Was known as a hero of the Mexican War. De Leon served as a doctor under General Zachary Taylor and took charge of the troops after all the other officers were killed. He succeeded in not only saving the troops but encouraging them to counter-attack. For his action, he won a Congressional Citation and earned the nickname of the "Fighting Doctor." He was selected in 1861 by Confederate President Jefferson Davis as the Surgeon General of the Confederacy.

1845 July 1, DAVID YULEE (1810-1866) (Florida, USA) 

Became the first Jew elected to the Senate, where he served until 1861. He resigned at the beginning of the American Civil War to become a member of the Confederate Congress.

1845 August 19, - 1934 EDMOND DE ROTHSCHILD "Hanadiv Hayaduah" (France) 

Philanthropist and art expert. Known as the "Builder of Modern Eretz Israel". Rothschild's interest began as early as the mid-1870's after viewing a play by Alexandre Dumas, La Femme de Claude. This play promoted the return of the Jews to their homeland. But it was only after being approached by Rabbi Samuel Mohilever that he became active in supporting the new settlements of Zichron Yaakov and Rishon Lezion and helped establish Ekron and Rosh Pina. Rothschild at first did not wish to use his name and so the soubriquet "Hanadiv Hayaduah" (The well-known benefactor) was used instead. Although later there was tension between the settlers and Rothschild's managers, he single-handedly helped maintain the early efforts of the Zionist movement. Rothschild established PICA, the Palestine Jewish Colonization Association, which acquired land and established industries. It is estimated that he spent over 50 Million dollars in supporting the settlements, as well as another half a million to help develop an electrical power station.

1846 June 24, HUNGARY

The residence tax was officially abolished. In order to have it cancelled the Jews had to pay a one time fee of 1,200,000 florins.

1846 August 18, AUSTRIA 

The Jewish Oath was abolished in Austria. Originally established by Charlemagne, a Jew taking an oath in a Christian court against a Christian was forced to stand on the skin of a dead animal, or be surrounded by thorns and call down the curses of Korach or Naaman if he were not telling the truth. In Romania it was only repealed in the 20th century.

1847 - 1935 MAX LIEBERMAN (Berlin, Germany)

A world-renowned painter, he borrowed many of his concepts from French Impressionists. Although he was Jewish, he did not show any interest in using Judaism as a subject for his paintings.

1847 - 1915 (12 Kislev 5676) SOLOMON SCHECHTER (Romania-USA) 

Author, scholar and leader of the American Conservative movement. Born into a Habad-Hassidic family, he studied in Berlin and lectured on Talmud at Cambridge University in England. Schechter won fame for his work in editing and publishing documents recovered from the Cairo Genezah (the synagogue repository for sacred books and articles that are old or torn). He later headed the Jewish Theological Seminary in New York, and in 1913 established the United Synagogue of America. Schechter is considered to have developed much of the theory and ideology of Conservative Judaism, which was founded as a compromise between the Orthodox and Reform movements (see 1913). His works include "Studies in Judaism", "Midreshet Hagadol to Genesis" and "Some Aspects of Rabbinic Theology".

1848 ISAAC LEESER (USA)

Founded the Hebrew Education Society which later led to the Sunday school system.

1848 LOUIS KOSSUTH (Hungary)

Led the revolt against Austria. Twenty thousand Jews were among the insurgents.

1848

1848 - 1902 JACOB JOSEPH ( Kovno- NYC)

Rabbi and community leader. Jacob Joseph was the most famous preacher in Lithuania and the pale, before being offered the position as chief rabbi of new York. Despite reservations, he accepted it. Unfortunately, the internal conflicts in the religious community and opposition from without, hampered most of his activities. He died in poverty after suffering a stroke on 1987. In 1903 a yeshiva was opened in his honor. His great grandson Marine Captain Jacob Joseph died in Guadalcanal in 1942.

1848 - 1931 Nissim Behar ( Eretz-Israel)

Educator and early Zionist activist. Behar studies in Paris being sent there by Adolf Crémieux who had met him in Constantinople. Behar studied under Ben Yehudah and is considered to be the foremost educator in reviving Hebrew as a modern language. He taught Hebrew at the Alliance Israélite Universelle and later became its director. Behar moved to New York in 1901 and was very active in promoting the Zionist idea.

1848 PIEDMONT, (Italy)

As a result of full emancipation given to the Jews, 235 joined the Piedmontese army. Among them was Enrico Guastalla who fought against Austria, and was promoted to Major. Guastalla joined Giuseppe Garibaldi, Italy's most brilliant soldier of the Risorgimento (Reunification), in his campaigns and was elected to Parliament in 1865.

1848 - 1916 REIGN OF FRANZ JOSEPH I OF HAPSBURG (1830-1916) (Austria)

Considered to be one of the most enlightened monarchs of the 19th century. During his rule he cancelled many of the restrictions against the Jews and made them full citizens of the state in 1867. During the Mortara Case (1858) he tried in vain to bring about the release of the Jewish child. Franz Joseph was highly appreciated by the Jewish community, to the degree that anti-Semites referred to him as the "Judenkaiser."

1848 THE VALERO BANK (Jerusalem)

Founded by Jacob Valéro (1813-1874). became the first Hebrew bank in Eretz Israel. The bank provided services for the Ottoman government and served as a mean to transferring funds to the Jewish communities. It closed in 1915. His son Hayyim Aaron Valero (1845-1923) a banker, purchased land in Hebron, Jaffa, and Jerusalem. His lands in Jerusalem included areas near the Damascus gate, today’s neighborhoods of Katamon and Makor Chaim , as well as the land for Bikur Cholim Hospital and the Manchane Yehuda market which used to be known as the Valero Market.

1848 March 20, BERLIN (Germany)

Riots and street fighting killed 20 Jews. Anti-Jewish riots spread to Bavaria, Baden, Hamburg, and many other cities.

1848 March 29, SARDINIA

Carlo Alberto granted full rights to the Jews.

1848 April 6, GERMANY 

In every part of Germany, excluding Bavaria, Jews were granted civil rights. As a result, Gabriel Riesser (a Jew and an advocate for Jewish emancipation) was elected vice-president of the Frankfurt Vor Parliament, and became a member of the National Assembly. It must be noted that for the most part, these freedoms existed only on paper and were not enforced.

1848 April 17, ITALY 

The gates of the Roman ghetto were pulled down. Although Pope Pius IX was in favor of considering the removal of the ghetto gates, a popular leader named Ciceruacchio led a group who tore down the gates Passover eve. The Jews in the ghetto at first thought they were being attacked and hid in their houses.

1848 September, SWITZERLAND

Under the new constitution of Switzerland, democratic rights were guaranteed - but only for those of Christian faith. It took another 18 years until full equality was granted to all (See January 14,1866).

1848 December 31, DOV BERISH MEISELS (Austria)

Was elected to the Austrian Parliament. He was also elected to the Municipality of Cracow in the same year. A vociferous supporter of Jewish rights, he aligned himself with radicals because "Juden haben keine rechte" (Jews have no rights).

1849 GIUSEPPE GARIBALDI (Italy)

Joined with Mazzini and succeeded in unifying Italy for the first time since the Roman Empire. Many Jews volunteered in the Civil Guard. Three Jews were elected to the National Assembly, three to the City Council and two to the Committee for Defense.

1849 - 1932 (19 Adar 5693) JOSEPH HAYYIM SONNENFELD (Slovakia-Eretz Israel) 

One of the foremost leaders of "the "old Yishuv" in Jerusalem. The term "Old Yishuv" refers to those Jews who lived in Eretz Israel prior to the Zionist movement. He was instrumental in establishing (along with Diskin) schools and orphanages. Sonnenfeld was a dynamic rabbinical leader who preached separation between the Orthodox and non-Orthodox communities. At the same time, he was a strong supporter of the resettlement of Eretz Israel and the use of Hebrew as the official language. His scholarly works include responsa on the Shulchan Aruch as well as on the Talmud.

1849 March 4, AUSTRIA

Abolished discrimination on the basis of religion in the new constitution ("Octroyierte Verfassung")

1849 June 5, DENMARK

Article 84 of the new constitution negated discrimination against "any person on the basis of religious grounds." The Jews originally received the rights of citizenship in 1814.

1849 July 22, - 1887 EMMA LAZARUS (USA)

American poetess whose poem "New Colossus" is inscribed on the Statue of Liberty. She wrote many poems about the problems facing the Jews all over the world.

1849 July 28, HUNGARY 

First National Assembly, led by the revolutionary leader Kossuth, granted complete political and civil rights to the Jews in recognition of their loyalty.

1849 July 29, - 1923 MAX NORDAU (Hungary-France)

Author, theater critic, physician and Zionist leader. Nordau had achieved international fame as a writer prior to meeting Herzl at the Neue Freie Presse. The Dreyfus Affair awakened him, as well as Herzl to anti-Semitism. Nordau became Herzl's first convert and together they formulated the goals for the Basel Program. Nordau was a proponent of aggressive political Zionism. His famous "Nordau Plan" called for the settling of five hundred thousand Jews in Eretz Israel as a means of acquiring a Jewish state (1920). Jabotinsky later (1936) adopted Nordau's plan as the basis for his Ten-Year Plan.

1850 - 1921 IGNAZ GOLDZIHER (Hungary)

Islamic scholar. He described in detail the various Islamic sects and the history of Islamic oral tradition (hadith). After the Balfour Declaration he was asked by the Zionists to act as a mediator to help bring about an understanding with the Arabs. He refused.

1850 RICHARD WAGNER (1813-1883) (Germany)

Published his first anti-Semitic article Das Judentum in der Musik. The composer attacked the Jews, denying the existence of Jewish cultural creativity. He accused all Jews of being money hungry and condemned them as the "demon causing mankind's downfall" (Untergang). Wagner proposed that they be either assimilated or removed from cultural life. He was a strong supporter of political anti-Semitism. Wagner's daughter married the English/French anti-Semite, Houston Stewart Chamberlain.

1850 September 7, (1 Tishrei 5611 Rosh Hashana) MELEE AT SYNAGOGUE (Albany New York)

While Isaac Mayer Wise was serving as Rabbi of the Beth El Synagogue in Albany New York, he asserted in an address to a reform congregation that he did not believe in the coming of the Messiah nor the resurrection of the dead. Members of the Albany synagogue demanded that he be fired, he refused and forcefully ascended the pulpit. A fistfight broke out which included Wise and the synagogue president. The police had to intervene and close the synagogue. Wise decided to moved to Cincinnati where he founded Congregation Bnai Jeshurum and the first Reform seminary.

1850 December 12, COMMISSION AGAINST VAGRANCY ( Romania)

Interior Minister Ion Bratianu, (1821-1891) instituted a number of anti Jewish legislation's. In his "commission against vagrancy", Jews were defined as a vagabonds who could be expelled at will from the country.

1851 Benedetto Musolino (Calabria, Italy)

Musolino (1809–1885), a Christian, wrote "Gerusalemme e il Popolo Ebreo" - "Jerusalem and the Jewish People". His book, which was never published, called for the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine forty –five years before Herzl. Hebrew was to be its national language. He was active in "The Sons of New Italy" movement, and was elected in 1848 to the new parliament of the Kingdom of Naples.

1851 - 1933 FELIX ADLER (Germany - USA)

Educator and social reformer. Adler began his career at Temple Emanuel in New York, but soon decided to reject all forms of traditional Judaism. He served for a while as a professor at Cornell and in 1876 founded the Society for Ethical Culture which was non-sectarian and believed in the philosophy of ethical humanism. Adler became chairperson of the National Child Labor Committee and helped liberalize legislation regarding maternal and child welfare, labor relations, and civic reform.

1851 March 5, IASI ROMANIA

After the establishment of a "Commission Against Vagrancy", 37 Jews were forced onto a Turkish boat to be exiled. Some were thrown overboard.

1851 May 20, - 1929 EMILE BERLINER (Germany-USA)

Inventor and Zionist. He wrote convincingly on the compatibility between Orthodox Judaism and the world of science. He invented the "loose contact telephone transmitter", which was purchased by Bell. Berlinger established the largest telephone company in Europe. He also invented the microphone and the disc record, based on Edison's cylinder inversion.

1851 October 6, (10 Tishrei 5612 Yom Kippur) SAN DIEGO (USA) 

The first recorded Jewish religious observance in Southern California was held at the home of Lewis Abraham Franklin.

1852 - 1915 ISAAC LEIBUSH PERETZ (Poland)

A distinguished figure in both Hebrew and Yiddish literature. His writings are generally considered to lean toward Romanticism. In 1887, after ten years of silence he switched from Hebrew to Yiddish, writing poetry and editing journals. Peretz became a socialist criticizing both Hebrew and Zionism, which he referred to as "Diaspora nationalism". Many of his stories relate to Hassidic tales.

1852 PRAGUE (Bohemia)

The ghetto was officially abolished.

1852 - 1870 REIGN OF NAPOLEON III OF FRANCE

Charles Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, was a tyrant who also tried to grant liberal reforms. Though elected to the presidency, he also established himself as a dictator. During the Mortara Case (1858), he joined the protest against the actions of the Church.

1852 - 1931 ALBERT ABRAHAM MICHELSON ( Poland - USA)

Physicist known for his work on measuring the speed of light. His theories provided Einstein with the basis for developing his Theory of Relativity.. Michelson was the first (along with Francis G. Pease) to measure the diameter of a star other than the Sun (Betelgeuse). In 1869 he received a special appointment to the naval academy in Annapolis by President U. S. Grant. He received a Nobel Prize in physics in 1907 being the first American to win that prize. His books include The Velocity of Light and Studies in Optics.

1852 January 16, MOUNT SINAI HOSPITAL (New York, USA) 

The first Jewish Hospital in the United States (originally known as "Jews Hospital of New York") was founded by a group of mostly German Jewish immigrants. One of its founders was Samson Simson, one of the first Jewish lawyers in New York City who had studied under Aaron Burr. That same year, he also helped found the Beth Hamedrash Hagodal. Other contributors included Samuel Myer Isaacs, who helped found Maimonides College in Philadelphia, and Adolphus Simeon Solomons, who in 1881 helped Clara Barton found the Red Cross.

1852 February 21, POPE PIUS IX (1792 – 1878)

Protested the Grand Duke of Tuscany Leopold II’s, decision allow them to live outside the ghetto. In his objection he wrote "Otherwise, it will open the door to requests for other civil rights for Jews and for other non-Catholics."

1852 June 4, BETH HAMEDRASH HAGADOL (New York, USA)

A congregation for Russian Jews was formed with the help of former German Jewish immigrants. This traditional congregation opened a school and soon became the center of Orthodoxy in the U.S. Abraham Joseph Ash, an halachic authority, was elected as its rabbi in 1860 and held the position until his death in 1888. So as not to be dependent on a community salary, he also tried his hand in business without much success.

1853 ABRAHAM SCHREINER (Galicia)

A merchant who discovered the uses of petroleum. He built a distillery which caught fire, leaving him impoverished. He ended up selling liquor to peasants.

1853 - 1927 MARCUS SAMUEL BEARSTEAD (England)

Viscount, Lord Mayor of London, and philanthropist. He imported ornamental shells and later founded an oil company which he named "Shell".

1853 - 1918 (21 Av 5678) HAYYIM SOLOVEICHIK (Rav Chayim Brisker) (Russia)

Rabbi of Brest-Litvosk. He served as head of the Volozhin Yeshiva and was author of Reb Chayim Al Harambam on Maimonides' Mishneh Torah. A great scholar and brilliant talmudist, he evolved new trends in analytical talmudic study. As its undisputed leader, R. Hayyim spent much of his time organizing and helping the community. After the 1895 fire he did much to help rebuild the town. Though stringent in his personal observance, he was often lenient in his decisions for others.

1853 KEREM AVRAHAM ("Abraham's Vineyard")

Was purchased by James Finn (1806-1872) the British council in Jerusalem . Its purpose was to train Jews in agriculture and other trades so as to become financial independent of the Halukah system. Today it is a neighborhood in the center of Jerusalem, near Geulah.

1853 - 1932 MOSES ALEXANDER (USA) 

The first Jewish Governor of an American State, Alexander was born in Germany, began his political career as the mayor of Chillicothe Missouri, and then became mayor of Boise, Idaho before becoming governor. He was active in the Jewish community and helped found the first synagogue in Idaho. The town of Alexander, Idaho is named after him.

1853 February 10, - 1933 VICTOR MORDECHAI GOLDSCHMIDT, (Germany-Austria) 

German mineralogist. Goldschmidt made important studies of crystallography. His books The index of Crystal Forms and the Atlas of Crystal Forms are considered classics of mineralogy.

1853 May 2, CONSITUTION IN ARGENTINA

Called for religious freedom for all Argentineans. The constitution still provided government support for Catholic institutions and stipulated that the president and his deputy must be Roman Catholic.

1854 - 1944 EMANUEL LOEW (Hungary)

Naturalist and botanist. His four volume work "Flora of the Jews" names and examines the nature of plant life in the Bible and the place of plant life in Jewish law and legend. He listed 117 names of plants in the Bible and 320 in talmudic literature.

1854 M. DAVIDSON (Germany)

Built and drove the first electric automobile.

1854 - 1917 PAUL EHRLICH (Germany)

First expounded the theory of immunity which led to the development of serums. Ehrlich enabled people to study blood cells by injecting dyes. He won the Nobel Prize (1908) for his development of the "606" treatment for syphilis. Ehrlich was also a noted Zionist.

1854 MOTZA

A Jewish farm was purchased from the nearby Arab village of Qalunya by Shaul Yehuda an Iraqi Jew, with the help of the British council James Finn. A number of Jewish families joined him and an inn was set up by Yehoshua Yellin(1843-1924). Herzl planted a tree there in 1898, but it was cut down by the Turks during WWI for firewood.

1854 March 28, CRIMEAN WAR

Britain and France joined the Ottoman empire in the war against Russia. Although the immediate cause were the rights of the Greek orthodox church in the holy land, The real reason was the expansion of Russia at the expense of the weakened Ottoman empire. Jews fought on all sides, especially the Russian side. The outbreak of war led to the cessation of any transfer of funds to Eretz Israel, which in turn resulted in great hardships. One outcome of the war was the expansion of counselor offices and the renewed interest in the area.

1855 - 1927 HOUSTON STEWART CHAMBERLAIN (England)

Son-in-law of Richard Wagner, the composer and anti-Semite. He was a proponent of the superiority of the Teutonic race. Chamberlain was the author of "Foundation of the Nineteenth Century" which Julius Streicher, the Nazi founder of Der Stuermer, called "the greatest book since the gospel".

1855 DAVID EINHORN (USA) 

Arrived in Baltimore. A noted German reformist, he was more radical than Stephen Wise. Due to his anti-slavery views he was forced to flee during the Civil War. He was appointed rabbi in New York at Congregation Adath Jeshurun.

1855 - 1881 REIGN OF CZAR ALEXANDER II OF RUSSIA 

Alexander became Czar after his father's death during the Crimean war. Although by no means a liberal, the disaster of the war and comparisons with the West prompted him to make certain changes which included revoking serfdom, establishing local councils (Zemstovs) and reforming the legal system in 1864). Alexander's rise to the throne gave hope to the Jewish population after the harsh policies of Nicholas I. Although he refused to do away with the Pale, he did abolish the forced abduction of Jews into the army and allowed Jewish merchants (for the first time) to temporarily live in Moscow.

1856 - 1929 LOUIS MARSHALL (USA)

Constitutional lawyer and Jewish leader. He defended Jewish and minority rights and, although he was not a Zionist, he supported the Balfour Declaration.

1856 - 1922 AARON DAVID (A.D.) GORDON (Russia-Eretz Israel) 

A Hebrew writer and philosopher of the "religion of labor", he was considered to be the ideological pillar of the kibbutz movement. Born in 1856 in Russia, he only came to Eretz Israel at the age of 48. Neither his age or health impeded his drive to work in agriculture. He helped found Kibbutz Degania in 1909. Gordon's philosophy included a call for a return to nature. He believed that the self-improvement of each individual rather than external changes (i.e. Marxism) were the means to change Jewish destiny.

1856 - 1914 DAVID WOLFFSOHN (Lithuania-Germany)

Second president of the World Zionist Organization. He met Herzl in 1896 and formed a symbiotic relationship. He is credited with providing the business aspect to the Zionist movement. He is also recognized by some with the suggestion to use a blue and white talit (prayer shawl) for a flag and the Skekel as a membership fee.

1856 JERUSALEM (Eretz Israel) 

Population consisted of 8,000 Sephardim (Orientals) and 2,700 Ashkenazim (Europeans).

1856 - 1941 LOUIS BRANDEIS (USA) 

Liberal jurist and lawyer, he was known as "the people's attorney". He opposed monopolies and fought for higher wages and freedom of speech. In 1916 Woodrow Wilson nominated him to the position of Supreme Court Justice. Brandeis was an ardent Zionist, and in 1939 he resigned to devote himself to the Zionist cause. Although he disagreed with Weizmann regarding what he considered to be the economic and organizational inefficiency of the World Zionist Organization, he continued to be involved with the establishment of the Palestine Economic Corporation and the Palestine Endowment Fund. Brandeis fought the Peel Partition Plan of 1937, maintaining that the Jews had a right to all of Mandated Palestine. Kibbutz Ein Hashofet was named in his honor.

1856 SPECIAL TAX ON NON MUSLIMS ABOLISHED ( Ottoman Empire)

By Sultan Abdulmecid I. Non Muslims were also permitted to serve in the Ottoman army.

1856 March, COMMITTEE FOR THE ORGANIZATION OF THE JEWS (Russia)

Was appointed by the Czar Alexander II to seek ways to help "fuse" the Jews into Russian society and separate them from the "historical solidarity" of the Jews among themselves.

1856 May 6, - 1939 SIGMUND FREUD, 'Father of Psychoanalysis' (Vienna, Austria) 

Developed revolutionary techniques of psychoanalysis, including the idea that dreams represented the disguised fulfillment of subconscious desires. Freud formulated new theories of childhood development (such as the Oedipus complex). Though not a practicing Jew (he considered formal religion a neurosis), he encountered anti-Semitism many times and defended his Jewishness with dignity. His many works include The Ego and the Id, The Interpretation of Dreams, The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, and Moses and Monotheism (on the foundation and characteristics of Judaism). His students included Jung, Adler, and Frenezi.

1856 June 12, BAN ISSUED AGAINST THE LAEMEL SCHOOL (Jerusalem)

The school had been established a month earlier by Eliza Herz n’ee Laemel and the poet Ludwig August Frankl (1810-1894), making it the first Jewish school in Jerusalem to combine religious and secular study. A ban against any school which would include secular subjects was issued by the Ashkenazi Jewish community in Jerusalem. One of the co-signatories was Rabbi Samuel Salant. Other Rabbis, including Yehiel Michal Pines (1849-1913) and David Friedman of Karlin (1823-1917) as well as members of the Sephardic community, declared the ban invalid, and demanded it be rescinded. In actually, it was reinforced later on by Rabbi Yehoshua Leib Diskin (1818–1898) to include all Ashkenazi Jews anywhere in the land of Israel.

1856 August 5, - 1927 ASHER GINSBERG (Ahad Ha'am - "one of the people") (Russia-Eretz Israel) 

Essayist, philosopher, and founder of Cultural Zionism as opposed to Herzlian Zionism (which advocated diplomacy and mass immigration). He viewed Eretz Israel as a "spiritual center" to be slowly built through cultural and historical devotion rather than settlement activity. He was editor of the Hebrew periodical Hasheloach until 1903.

1856 November 10, LONDON (England)

Jews College was opened by Rabbi Nathan M. Adler. Its main goals were to offer courses and training in both Jewish and secular subjects as well as to establish a Jewish secondary school. The secondary school only lasted about 20 years.

1857 - 1894 HENRICH HERTZ (Germany)

Pioneer in the science of electricity, demonstrating the presence of electro-magnetic waves of slow frequency. They are popularly known today by his name, "Hertz Waves".

1857 - 1893 JULIUS POPPER (Romania-Argentina)

Explorer. Popper succeeded in finding gold on the Island of Tierra del Fuego and established himself there as a representative of a mining company. To protect himself against poachers he brought in armed men. After a number of "battles" he became the "Sovereign" of the Island, printing money and even stamps. As the mines began to produce less money he returned to Argentina where he lived as a popular literary figure. He died under uncertain circumstances.

1857 DAGGATUNS (Western Sahara)

A Jewish tribe, was described by Rabbi Mordechai Abi Serour. The Daggatuns were part of the Tuareg tribes, but lived their own lives with Jewish practices. According to some they had been driven into the desert by Abd al - Malik (see 693). Eventually they assimilated into the Muslim community and disappeared as a Jewish entity. Abi Serour returned with his brother a few years later managed to form a tiny community in Timbuktu serving as Rabbi. But due to the hostility of the area, plus the lack of support the community proved unsustainable, and he moved to Algiers.

1857 JOHANNES FRUTIGER ARRIVED IN ERETZ ISRAEL

As head of the Chrischona Mission. Frutiger a Swiss businessman and banker hoped to invest and use his profits for the mission. Frutiger (1836-1899) eventually opened a bank “Bankhaus J. Frutiger & Co”. Together with Shalom Konstrum and Joseph Navon, he established the Mahane Yehuda neighborhood in 1887 and Abu Tor a few years later. He helped finance many other projects, including Mea Shearim, and the Jerusalem Jaffa railroad.

1857 September, TUNISIA

Under a direct threat from Napoleon III's troops, Muhammad al-Sadiq-Bey (1857-82) proclaimed the Pacte Fondamental which gave equal rights to Jews. It was enforced following the execution of a Jew, Batto Sfez, for allegedly blaspheming Islam. By 1864 the new constitution was abolished by the Bey due to pressure from the population.

1857 September 15, JAMES FINN (Eretz Israel) 

The second British Consul in Jerusalem, wrote to the Foreign Secretary the Earl of Clarendon offering a plan to settle Jews in agriculture in Eretz Israel to help the land prosper. He proposed "to persuade Jews in a large body to settle here as agriculturalists on the soil ... in partnership with the Arab peasantry”.

1858 - 1935 ANDRE-GUSTAV CITROEN (France)

"The Henry Ford of France". After taking over the Mors automobile plant in 1908, he became one of the largest producers of cars.

1858 BARON JULIUS REUTER (Germany-England)

Inaugurated the first news service agency to furnish European papers with political and general news (England). He started it in Germany (1849) using pigeons.

1858 - 1917 EMILE DURKHEIM (France)

A descendant of a French rabbinical family, he became a noted sociologist. He explored suicide, religion, the conscience, and "anonymity" by using scientific research methods.

1858 - 1925 MORDECAI SPECTOR (Russia-America)

Yiddish satirist and contributor to Sholem Aleichem's "Folksblatt". After moving to America he became a frequent contributor to the American Yiddish press.

1858 MOSCOW (Russia)

The Jewish population of the entire Moscow district consisted of only 340 men and 104 women. Most of the men were former Cantonists, forcibly conscripted for 25 years (see 1827).

1858 - 1942 HANNAH SOLOMON (USA)

Civic leader and founder of the National Council of Jewish Women (1893) Solomon was elected as the Council's first president and served until 1905. Together with and Susan B. Anthony she represented the Council of Women of the United States at a convention of the International Council of Women in Berlin in 1904. In an effort to help new immigrants she organized the Bureau of Personal Service in Chicago.

1858 January 7, - 1922 ELIEZER BEN YEHUDA PERELMAN (Lithuania-Eretz Israel) 

Hebrew essayist and compiler of the first modern Hebrew dictionary. He is credited with transforming Hebrew into a modern language. To this end he established the Vaad Halashon (Language Council) for the purpose of coining new words. He began work on a dictionary of which the last two volumes were later completed by Moshe Zvi Segal.

1858 March 12, - 1935 ADOLPH OCHS (USA)

Newspaper publisher. Ochs began working with newspapers at the age of 11. After his success with the Chattanooga Times, he went on to buy the New York Times, which had been losing money, making it one of the major newspapers in the United States. Ochs fought against yellow journalism believing that editorials should be unbiased and advertisements not be deceptive.

1858 June 23, MORTARA CASE (Bologna, Italy) 

Edgardo Mortara, a seven year old Jewish boy, was kidnapped by the Roman Catholic Church on the pretext that a servant girl claimed that she had baptized him. The Pope, Pious IX, refused to surrender him despite much protest. The combination of the Damascus Affair and this affair led to the unification of many Jews, and later to the establishment of the Alliance Israelite Universelle.

1858 July 26, SIR LIONEL NATHAN ROTHSCHILD (England) 

For eleven years after his election to the House of Commons, Baron Rothschild had been unable to take his seat owing to the disagreements between the houses regarding the Oath's law. A compromise motion was finally reached whereby each house of Parliament was permitted to determine its own type of oath, thus allowing him to take his seat for the City of London.

1859 - 1941 HENRI BERGSON (France)

Mystic philosopher. He disavowed platonic doctrine and championed intuition rather than strict rationalization, as well as the optimistic place of man in nature. His greatest works are "Creative Evolution", "Time and Free Will, and Two Sources of Morality and Religion. He won the Nobel Prize in 1928.

1859 JOSEPH MICHAELSEN (Denmark)

Devised the International Postal Service Union, to overcome the confusion of the international mail system.

1859 - 1938 SAMUEL ALEXANDER (Australia-England)

Born in Australia, he proved himself a brilliant student and became the first Jew to be awarded a fellowship to Oxford, England. His was considered one of the greatest philosophical minds of the twentieth century. Alexander's most important work is entitled Space, Time and Deity.

1859 GARIBALDI (Italy)

126 Jews joined Garibaldi's volunteers ("Red Shirts") in helping to conquer the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies for the Kingdom of Italy. At this time, there were less than 30,000 Jews in all of Italy.

1859 - 1936 NAHUM SOKOLOW (Poland-England) 

Articulate and versatile essayist and publicist. During the 1930s he headed the Jewish Agency and the World Zionist Organization. He was also editor of Hatsefirah and published a history of Zionism, which mainly dealt with the period from 1917-1920. His Hebrew translation of Herzl's Altneuland was entitled Tel Aviv, which subsequently became the name of the first new Jewish city in Eretz Israel. Sokolow collaborated with Weizmann in London to negotiate the Balfour Declaration and its acceptance by Britain's allies.

1859 - 1938 OTTO WARBURG (Germany)

Botanist, and Zionist leader. Warburg was a strong supporter of mass settlement but only with the approval of a charter. His main contribution to the Zionist movement was in practical actions such as buying land and encouraging investment. He also served as the third president of the World Zionist Organization. During the 1920's, he directed the Botany Department of the Hebrew University but died in Germany.

1859 March 2, - 1916 SHOLEM (ALEICHEM) RABINOWITZ (Kiev, Russia) 

Famed Yiddish novelist, he wrote in Russian, Yiddish and Hebrew. The characters he created, such as Tevye the Milkman for example, are vivid and memorable. Stempeyu, his first Yiddish novel, helped establish his credentials as the "Yiddish Mark Twain". Sholem Aleichem wrote happy children's tales as well as romances. His pseudonym was originally used to disguise his writings so that his father would not know who wrote them. His father, one of the Maskilim, praised Hebrew and condemned Yiddish.

1859 April 14, GALATZ (Romania)

Jews were accused of taking blood from a Christian child (for the baking of matzos), though not of killing him. Fifteen "culprits" were arrested. The next day a mob broke into the synagogue. Tney killed some of the worshippers, destroyed some fifty scrolls, and demolished the synagogue. The fifteen were soon released with no convictions, yet the government refused to allow the synagogue to be rebuilt for nearly twenty years.

1860 HAMEILITZ (Russia)

Was published by Alexander Zederbaum. It became the first Hebrew weekly published in Russia.

1860 NEW YORK (USA)

There were 17 active synagogues in the city.

1860 SPANISH-MOROCCAN WAR

Following an attack by the Spaniards, 400 Jews were killed in the city of Tetuan in anti-Jewish riots. During the war many Jews took refuge in Gibraltar.

1860 - 1930 WALDEMAR MORDECAI WOLF HAFFKINE (Russia)

Developer of an anti-cholera and bubonic plague vaccine. He was an Orthodox Jew who supported yeshivot in Eastern Europe with his earnings.

1860 DEBORA ROMM (Vilna)

Took over her husband's printing press after his death at the age of 29, renaming it "The Widow and Brothers Romm". Under her direction it became one of the most well known and respected printing houses in Europe. In 1889 she printed a full edition of the Talmud known as the Romm edition, which has remained a classic and is still in use. Twenty-two thousand copies of the first volume were sold in the first year.

1860 - 1911 GUSTAV MAHLER (Bohemia-Austria-USA) 

Major modern Jewish composer of nine symphonies. His eighth, "Symphony of a Thousand", requires one thousand performers. Mahler was forced to convert to Christianity as a prerequisite to accepting the post of director of the Vienna Court Opera. His most important song cycles are Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen (1884) and Kindertotenlieder (1900-02). During the last 4 years of his life he conducted the Metropolitan Opera and the New York Philharmonic.

1860 - 1925 HUGO PREUSS (Germany) 

Jurist and liberal politician. He was originally denied a professorship because of his Jewish background, but in spite of this he eventually became Minister of the Interior (see 1921) and headed the committee responsible for drafting the Weimar Constitution.

1860 - 1935 RUFUS ISAACS, FIRST MARQUESS OF READING (England) 

The grand-nephew of Daniel Mendoza. He achieved unprecedented honor (for a Jew) in England. Starting as a lawyer rather late in life, he was soon renowned for his abilities and was later appointed Lord Chief Judge, as well as Attorney General and Queens Council. Although not active in Jewish affairs, he stated in 1915, "The Jews ought to have a place" and a government of their own."

1860 - 1941 SIMON DUBNOW (Russia) 

The most prominent Jewish historian of recent times. He wrote two separate histories: "History of the Jews" and "History of the Jews of Russia and Poland". He believed that the Jews had a cultural autonomy within other nations, and therefore should all speak Yiddish as a common language. Dubnow also encouraged Sholem Aleichem in his writing. Dubnov was killed in Riga in December 1941, allegedly by a Gestapo officer who had at one time been a student of his.

1860 February 21, URIAH P. LEVY (1792-1862)

Is appointed Commodore of the Eastern Mediterranean fleet. Levy a naval officer, found himself facing many anti-Semitic obstacles in his career, and was eventually forced to turn to a court of inquiry in his argument against the navy. The court ruled in his favor, and he was appointed Commodore in the U.S. Navy, a post which he held until his death. He is also remembered for his fight to abolish capital punishment within the navy.

1860 May, - 1904 THEODORE HERZL (Hungary-Austria-France) 

Founder of political Zionism. Born in Budapest, his education was German with little Jewish influence. He became a correspondent and later editor of the Neue Freie Presse in Vienna. For a while he toyed with the idea of converting and felt that mass conversion might solve the problem of anti-Semitism. He was in Paris during the Dreyfus trial, which inspired his idea of a Jewish national homeland. He had never read Hess or Pinsker, but developed the idea of Zionism entirely on his own. Herzl wrote "The Jewish State" in three weeks and then launched his Zionist program. He served as the physical and spiritual head of the World Zionist Organization until his death soon after the Uganda scheme failed to win support. During his life, he met with as many heads of state as possible in order to win support for a national homeland.

1860 May 17, ALLIANCE ISRAELITE UNIVERSELLE (Kol Yisrael Haverim) (France) 

Was launched by a group of French Jews under the direction of Adolphe Cremieux. It was designed to defend Jewish rights and to establish modern Jewish educational facilities throughout the world. The Alliance is considered to be the first modern Jewish organization. It became the prototype of other organizations of its kind. The catalyst for its creation was the Damascus Affair in 1840, the Mortara Case in 1858, and the growing need to protect Jews on an international basis. The Franco-Prussian War diminished its universality and separate organizations were formed in Germany and England.

1860 November 3, JERUSALEM (Eretz Israel) 

The first neighborhood outside the old city wall was dedicated. The site was purchased by Sir Moses Montefiore five years earlier and was known as Mishkenot Sha'ananim. Although there was initial resistance to leaving the "security" of the Old City walls, it soon led to the establishment of dozens of new neighborhoods.

1860 November 3, MISHKENOT SHA'ANANIM (Jerusalem, Eretz Israel) 

The first neighborhood outside the Old City's walls was dedicated. The site was purchased by Sir Moses Montefiore, five years earlier, with $60,000 from the estate of Judah Touro which was left for Montefiore to use at his discretion. Although there was initial resistance to leaving the "security" of the Old City's walls, it soon led to the establishment of dozens of new neighborhoods.

1860 December 21, - 1945 HENRIETTA SZOLD (USA) 

Founder of Hadassah (the American Women's Zionist Organization), which was named after the Hebrew name of Queen Esther. She served as its president until 1926. In 1893 she worked as the secretary of the Jewish Publication Society and translated a number of publications. She was a devoted Zionist and a member of the Zionist Executive.

1861 A HEBREW PERIODICAL CALLED "TEBUNAH"

Was started by Israel Lipkin Salanter. It dealt with rabbinical law and religious problems.

1861 ADOLPH FRANK (Germany)

Discovered the use of potash and created the potash industry.

1861 DOV BERISH MEISELS (Warsaw, Poland)

Petitioned and led demonstrations against Russian oppression in Poland. Together with Marcus Jastrow (a Reform leader soon to emigrate to America) and Christian leaders, he organized a mass funeral for those slain by the Russians.

1861 - 1865 AMERICAN CIVIL WAR (USA)

Jews fought heroically on both sides. 10-12,000 Jews fought for the Confederates and 15-20,000 for the Union, including 9 generals, 21 colonels, 40 majors, and 205 captains. The majority, including Isaac Meyer Wise, sided with the North for moral reasons.

1861 - 1893 SHUKR BEN SALIM KUHAYL I (Sana'a, Yemen)

Was also known as Mari (Master) Shukr Kuhayl I. During a particularly difficult period for Jews in Yemen, this poor preacher, announced himself as the messenger of the Messiah. He soon upgraded his claim to that of the Messiah himself, and won many adherents in Yemen. Shukr was killed and decapitated in 1865 by local Arabs. Prior to his death he promised to reappear and a few years late was succeeded by Judah ben shalom ( see 1867)

1861 March 3, EMANCIPATION ACT (Russia)

In an effort to gain support of the liberals, censorship was eased on newspapers, and controls relaxed in universities. Serfdom was also abolished with about half of them owning some land. Ironically this worked to the detriment of the Jews. The serfs, now producers, began to see the Jewish merchant middlemen as standing in their way to attaining wealth. This would lead to mass participation in the pogroms of 1881.

1861 May 6, DAVID CAMDEN DE LEON (USA)

David Camden De Leon, known as "the Fighting Doctor", was appointed as the first surgeon general of the Confederate Army.

1861 October 26, JOHANN PHILIP REISS (1834-1874) (Germany) 

Invented and exhibited the telephone at a conference of physicians in Giessen (15 years before Bell). Unfortunately, due to his poor health and a lack of financial resources, he was not able to commercialize on his invention. In Europe he was recognized as the inventor of the telephone.

1862 - 1923 MORRIS ROSENFELD ("Poet of Labor") (USA)

Wrote about life in the sweatshops of New York. He dealt with humanitarianism rather than Socialism. His Lider Buch (Songs from the Ghetto) won wide acclaim.

1862 RABBI ZEVI HIRSH KALISHER (Poland) 

Published an appeal for the establishment of agricultural colonies in Eretz Israel in a pamphlet called Drishat Zion (Seeking Zion).

1862 MOSES HESS (1812-75) (Germany) 

Wrote "Rome and Jerusalem". After his belief in the panacea of socialism waned, he came to the conclusion that anti-Semitism would not be cured by assimilation. Instead, he held that Jews should build their own nation and society in an independent Eretz Israel.

1862 September 18, JACOB FRANKEL (USA) 

Was appointed as the first Jewish chaplain in the U.S. army by Presidential order. Until now the only chaplains in the U.S. Army were Christian.

1862 October 4, EMANCIPATION IN BADEN (Germany)

In spite of the fact that much of Prussia had removed the anti-Jewish disabilities years earlier, Baden had refused, conditioning it on Jewish cession of outward characteristics. On this date they were finally removed unconditionally.

1862 December 17, GENERAL GRANT (USA) 

In issuing his infamous order 11, he ordered all "Jews as a class" expelled from his lines. In New York City 7,000 Jews marched in protest against his decision. Lincoln rescinded Grant's order.

1863 - 1920 S. ANSKY (Solomon Rapoport) (Russia)

Yiddish short story writer, playwright, and folklorist. His fame stems from his play "The Dybbuk". During World War I he helped set up self-defense forces in Kiev.

1863 - 1940 CYRUS ADLER (USA) 

American rabbi, scholar, and educator. Adler succeeded Solomon Schechter as president of the Jewish Theological Seminary and later became president of Dropsie College in Philadelphia. He was one of the founders of the American Jewish Historical society, the United Synagogue of America, and the American Jewish Committee.

1863 - 1940 (5 Av 5700) HAYYIM OZER GRODZENSKI (Poland) 

Appointed Rabbi in Vilna at the age of twenty-four. He spent much of his time trying to alleviate the plight of the poor, the yeshivot, and the constant refugees. An early leader of the Agudas Yisroel Movement, he was embroiled in many controversies over liberalism and the Zionist movement, and always maintained a strictly conservative view. His Responsa Achiezer was published in three volumes and established him as a leading Torah authority.

1863 - 1926 MAXIM VINAVER (Russia)

Jewish leader, lawyer, and spokesman for the Jewish "Block" in the Duma.

1863 - 1941 MENACHEM MENDEL USSISHKIN (Russia-Eretz Israel) 

Zionist leader. He served as Hebrew Secretary at the First Zionist Congress and bitterly opposed the Uganda plan. His views were expressed in a pamphlet, "Our Program", which advocated group settlement based on labour. Ussishkin was President of the Jewsh National Fund for eighteen years, and he was the force behind large land acquisitions in Emek Hefer and in the Jezreel and Bet Shean valleys. He was one of the few Zionist leaders to actually settle in Israel.

1863 PESEL BALABAN (Ukraine)

Printed the Bible with commentaries. After her husband's death she expanded both the scope and quality of her publications. Her edition of the Shulhan Aruk published with commentaries in 1898, is considered one of the best ever printed.

1863 December, THE SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION OF CULTURE AMONG THE JEWS OF RUSSIA

Was founded by Baron Joseph Guenzburg. Also known as the OPE, its goal was to help Jews learn the Russian language, secular subjects and culture. There were numerous difficulties including antagonism by Russian bureaucracy, and the reluctance religious community which saw it as a tool for assimilation. During later years there was controversy on the language of instruction in the schools for refugees. The OPE wanted Yiddish, others wanted Russian, and the Zionists wanted Hebrew.

1864 - 1948 ABRAHAM MORDECHAI ROTHENBURG (Eretz Israel)

Grandson of Isaac Meir (the founder of the Gur Hassidic dynasty and author of Chiddushai Harim). He was one of the foremost leaders of Polish Jewry and founder of the Agudist religious movement. Though he was not a Zionist, he visited Eretz Israel six times. In 1940 he escaped the Nazis and made his way to Eretz Israel.

1864 - 1867 MEXICO

Backed by French troops Emperor Maximilian, the archduke of Austria, ruled as emperor of Mexico. Many Jews from France, Belgium, and Austria arrived in his wake, helping to establish the modern Jewish community in Mexico. After his execution by republican forces under Benito Juarez, the situation for the Jews in Mexico did not change for the worse.

1864 - 1888 MOROCCO

During this period, 307 Jews were murdered by Muslims without one Moslem being put on trial for this crime.

1864 January 1, - 1946 ALFRED STIEGLITZ (USA)

Master photographer and the first who had his pictures accepted into museums. He did much to help photography achieve the status of an accepted art. He edited the photography magazine, Camera Work. Among his studies were portraits of his artist wife, Georgia O'Keeffe.

1864 February 14, - 1926 ISRAEL ZANGWILL (England) 

Celebrated portrayer of the humorous as well as the tragic side of Jewish life in England. As a member of the World Zionist Organization during the Uganda affair, he led a secessionist group to form the Jewish Territorial Organization (J.T.O.). The group did not oppose but also did not insist on Eretz Israel as a national homeland.

1864 May 16, - 1937 NATHAN BIRNBAUM (Mathias Acher) (Austria) 

Philosopher and early Zionist leader. Although Birnbaum left orthodoxy at a young age, his direction moved into Jewish Nationalism rather than assimilation. He formed Kadimah, a nationalist students organization in 1882 and became one of Herzl's strong supporters. Three years later, he founded and edited the first Jewish nationalist journal in German, Selbstemanzipation, where the term Zionism was first used in a modern sense. He left active Zionist affairs in 1903 over a disagreement on the negation of the Diaspora, and advocated Diaspora nationalism and Yiddish along withZionism. In the aftermath of WWI he became active in religious organizations becoming the general secretary of Agudat Israel (1919). He wrote numerous articles delineating his religious philosophy of trying to "create the new Jew, based in the Torah, near to nature and to God".

1865 - 1940 CHAIM ZHITLOWSKY (Russia)

Influential Socialist-Nationalist. He was the founder of the Socialist Yiddishist Movement.

1865 - 1941 PAUL HYMAN (Belgium)

Premier of Belgium and the first president of the League of Nations. His father wrote the Belgian National Anthem.

1865 SWEDEN

Removed anti-Jewish disabilities.

1865 - 1935 (3 Elul 5635) ABRAHAM ISAAC KOOK (Eretz Israel) 

Proponent of a religious national philosophy. Rav Kook was appointed the first Chief Rabbi of Israel. He tried to broaden the outlook of the yeshivot to cope with modern ideas and train spiritual leaders. His mystical leanings helped him embrace even the non-religious pioneers and earned him the respect of the entire Zionist world. Rav Kook set up his own yeshiva, which later became known as Mercaz Harav. He was an outspoken critic of the British Mandatory government and a staunch defender of the Revisionist movement during the infamous Arlozoroff affair, once he became convinced of their innocence. His many works in philosophy and halacha include Iggeret Hareaya, Orot Hateshuva, Shabbat Haaretz, Daat Kohen, and Mishpat Kohen.

1865 - 1931 LIEUTENANT GENERAL SIR JOHN MONASH (Australia-France) 

Highest ranking Australian in World War I. In 1918 he was appointed head of the Australian army in France.

1865 March 13, FREDERICK KNEFLER (1833-1901) (Hungary - USA) 

Army officer. Born in Hungary, Knefler had the distinction of being one of the only people to rise from a private to a general during the course of a war. In 1861 he volunteered for the Union Army and became a captain within one year. Fighting under General Sherman, he was promoted to brevet brigadier general just before the end of the war.

1865 April 14, PRESIDENT ABRAHAM LINCOLN (1809-1865) (USA) 

Was assassinated. Lincoln was the first President to deal with national Jewish problems, including the appointment of Jewish Chaplains in the U.S. Army and his involvement with the expulsion order of Ulysses S. Grant. (see 1862)

1866 ALEXANDER CUZA (Romania)

Was overthrown. Cuza had united Romania for the first time in 1859 and tried to prepare for the emancipation of the Jews. He was succeeded by Ion Bratinau who, together with his brothers, ruled until World War I. The 50 years of their reign was a time of government-led pogroms and harassment of Jews.

1866 - 1939 BARUCH DOV LEIBOVITZ (Lithuania)

Dean of the Kamienice Yeshiva. He favored strict talmudic study with only thirty minutes daily devoted to the study of Mussar (ethics).

1866 BASEBALL - PIKE LIPMAN (1845-1893) (USA)

Was hired to play for the Philadelphia Athletics for $20 a month, becoming the first Jewish professional baseball player. That same year he hit 6 home runs in a single game, five of them in a row. In 1870 he joined the Brooklyn Atlantics and played in the famous game of 1870 when they defeated the Cincinnati Red Stockings, which was the first all professional baseball team.

1866 ENGLAND

An act was passed which replaced the oath of admission to Parliament, paving the way for Jews to be admitted to both houses.

1866 GALANTZ (Romania)

City officials started a tug-of-war with Turkey over the Danube. In this case, the Jews were the rope. They were forcibly shipped across the river and told not to return. Turkey refused to accept them and shipped them back. This continued until Romania decided to drown them if they returned. Two people subsequently drowned and Turkey allowed the survivors to remain.

1866 - 1938 LEV SHESTOV (Schwartzman) (Russia)

Philosopher known as the "Nietzche of Russia". He believed that everything revolved around G-d. He influenced many of the 2oth century's intellectuals including Camus, Berdayev, and D.H. Lawrence. Among his works are essays on Chekhov, Tolstoy, Ibsen, and Dostoevsky as well as his books "Athens and Jerusalem" and "Speculation and Relation".

1866 WILLIAM VAN PRAAGH (1845-1907) (Holland- England)

Began pioneering experiments teaching lip-reading to deaf mutes at the Jews' Deaf and Dumb Home in London.

1866 - 1959 ABRAHAM FLEXNER (USA) 

Educator. Flexner, known as an innovative educator, was commissioned by the Carnegie foundation to study the medical schools in North America. Flexner's report had a major impact on the methodology of medical education and its reform. He later directed the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton.

1866 - 1956 MURAD BEH FARAG ( Egypt)

Jewish scholar and poet. In 1923 he co-authored the first Egyptian constitution. Although a strong Egyptian patriot as portrayed in his poem 'My Homeland Egypt, Place of my Birth', he also believed in the right for the Jews to have a state of their own.

1866 January 14, SWITZERLAND 

Jewish rights were ratified. Switzerland was the scene of some of the worst massacres during the Black Plague and a hotbed of anti-Jewish edicts. This legislation was only passed after the United States, Britain, and France refused to sign treaties until their anti-Jewish cantons were repealed.

1866 January 15, SWITZERLAND

Jews were finally granted equal rights. It took another seven years for the Constitution to be changed.

1866 June 29, ROMANIAN CONSTITUTION

Was issued by Carol I of Romania (1839-1914). In article 6 he proposed that "religion is no obstacle to citizenship" and continued "with regard to the Jews, a special law will have to be framed". The next day anti- Jewish roots ensued and the Bucharest Synagogue destroyed. Article 6 was then canceled and substituted with article 7 which stated "only such aliens as are of the Christian faith may obtain citizenship".

1867 - 1922 WALTER RATHENAU (Germany)

German Minister of Reconstruction after World War I and later Foreign Minister. He was assassinated by two members of the fascist Eberhard Brigade who proclaimed: "Only a German shall a German leader be."

1867 JUDAH BEN SHALOM ( Yemen)

False Messiah. He claimed that he was the incarnate of Shukr ben Salim Kuhayl I and called himself Shukr ben Salim Kuhayl II. He actually “ remarried” the first Shukr’s wife, yet unlike the first Shukr he established a large court , and amassed a small fortune by demanding tithes from various communities. He was strongly condemned by Jacob Saphir the author of Even Sapir (see 1822)

1867 December 21, AUSTRIAN AUSGLEICH (Constitution)

The term Ausgleich referred to the compromise between Austria and Hungary allowing for a dual monarchy. As part of the agreement, Hungary had to agree to enact the civil reforms already in place in Austria. These reforms became the Magna Carta for minority races in the Austrian Empire. It included the right to hold office as well as freedom of occupation, settlement, and religion. The original constitution, which was issued in 1610, had been annulled a few years later.

1868 - 1966 1868-1966 ANDRE SPIRE (France)

Poet and Zionist leader. Spire was born into an assimilated family and became a Jewish nationalist as an outcome of the Dreyfus Affair. He even fought a duel with Edouard-Adolphe Drumont, leader of the anti Semitic movement in France. During the Russian pogroms of 1956, he supported the Russo-Jewish self-defense organizations and organized the Association des jeunes Juifs for Jewish immigrants. Spire's main collection, Poemes juifs (1919, 1959), attacked assimilation and called for a Jewish revival.

1868 - 1941 EMANUEL LASKER (Germany-England) 

A mathematician by profession, he was the foremost chess champion of his day. In 1892 he won his first major tournament in London. In 1894 he defeated Wilhelm Steinitz for the championship which he defended against Frank Marshall, David Janowski, and others. He held the championship until 1921 when he was defeated by Capablanca with ten draws and four losses. Lasker wrote two classic books on chess: "Common Sense in Chess" (1896) and "Lasker's Manual of Chess."

1868 - 1943 KARL LANDSTEINER (Austria) 

Physiologist who discovered that there are four types of human blood. He received the Nobel Prize in medicine 1930.

1868 - 1924 NAHMAN SYRKIN (Belarus - USA)

Writer and early leader of Socialist Zionism, he organized the Poale Zion (Zionist Labor Party - 1903). His ideals of socialism was one of morality rather then Marxism. Syrkin was a strong supporter of Herzl's Uganda scheme and temporarily left the Zionist movement. He immigrated to the United States in 1907 and became active in the American Jewish Congress and a member of the Jewish Delegation to the Paris Peace Conference. He returned to the Zionist movement heading the Poale Zion until his death.

1868 December 3, SAXONY (Germany) 

One of the last German states to give Jews full legal equality. Jews had been living in Saxony since the 10th century in towns like Magdeburg, Halle, and Erfurt. It was only one year before the inauguration of the North German confederation that they were given equality.

1869 SUEZ CANAL (Egypt)

Was completed and with that completion the Jewish population in Egypt began to grow, especially in Alexandria and Port Said. Most of the new immigrants came from the Near East and the Balkans.

1869 KNIGA KAHALA (THE BOOK OF THE KAHAL) (Russia)

Was published. This anti –Semitic work was written by Jacob Brafmann, a former Jew who converted of Russian Orthodoxy. Brafmann was commissioned by the Holy Synod to foster Christianity among the Jews. He was appointed professor of Hebrew at the Minsk seminar in 1860. In his fictionalized account of the working of the Kahal, he accused the Jews as being “the enemy within”. Despite protests and refutations it was printed with public funds and distributed free to all government offices. In the same vein he also published “Local and Universal Jewish Brotherhoods”. Both of these works found themselves incorporated into what would become the Protocols of the Elders of Zion.

1869 June 27, - 1940 EMMA GOLDMAN (Lithuania-USA)

Anarchist leader. Goldman edited the journal Mother Earth which dealt with the injustices of American society. She believed that the state hindered the achievement of personal freedom. Among her causes was was the freedom of birth control. Leon Czolgosz, who assassinated President McKinley, claimed that Goldman had a strong influence on him. Goldman was arrested and eventually deported but found living under the Bolsheviks equally distasteful. Among her works are Anarchism and Other Essays, My Further Disillusionment in Russia, and Living My Life.

1869 July 3, NORTH GERMAN CONFEDERATION WAS INITIATED (Prussia, Germany)

After the war of 1866 Prussia increased its territory to include Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, Saxony, etc. Under the initiative of the Liberal Party, full rights were extended to Jews, including serving in public positions. By April 16, 1871, this became Imperial Law and was extended to the entire empire. Although later reaction revoked most of this freedom, discrimination never returned to the level existing in the Middle Ages - until the rise of Hitler.

1869 October 20, MICHAEL BAKUNIN (1814-1876) (Russia)

In the article published in Le Reveil du Peuple, he attacked the Jews as being a "Nation of Exploiters". Bakunin was a revolutionist anti-Semite and one of the founders of anarchism. In his many articles, he emphasized that Jews controlled most of the commerce and banking in Europe and were the enemies of the proletariat. He viewed Rothschild and Marx as being two sides to the same coin.

1870 SWEDEN

Jews and Catholics were allowed to run for public office, although in order to become a minister one had to be a member of the Swedish state church. This regulation remained in effect until 1951.

1870 - 1940 ALFRED ADLER (Austria) 

Psychologist, originally a member of Freud's group. He formulated his own theories on the individual and inferiority.

1870 - 1938 BENJAMIN CARDOZO - SUPREME COURT JUDGE (New York, USA) 

Cardozo belonged to an old Sephardic family and served as Justice of the New York Supreme Court for many years. A tough liberal by nature, he was appointed to the Supreme Court by conservative Herbert Hoover in 1932. The Cardozo College of Law at Yeshiva University was named after him.

1870 - 1965 BERNARD BARUCH (USA) 

A tough financier, he made a name and fortune for himself on Wall Street. Baruch became friendly with Woodrow Wilson, serving as his advisor. Later he served as an advisor on defense and economy to President Roosevelt. Baruch was also highly regarded by both Truman and Eisenhower and was frequently consulted for his opinions. During Truman's administration he served as liaison to the Jewish community. Baruch was not a Zionist and was against the establishment of a Jewish state.

1870 EDICT OF POPE NICHOLAS III

The forcing of Jews to hear conversion sermons was abolished by Pope Pius IX, after almost six hundred years(1278).

1870 - 1953 HILAIRE BELLOC (England) 

Most prolific spokesman for English Catholicism. He generated the idea that Jews were only interested in money.

1870 NAPOLEON III (France) 

Resigned his throne and Adolphe Cremieux, a great defender of individual liberty, helped start a provisional government.

1870 February 15, MIKVEH ISRAEL (Eretz Israel) 

The first Israeli agricultural school was established by Charles Netter, head of the Alliance Israelites Universelle. He was supported by the Anglo-Jewish Association and Baron Edmond de Rothschild. Mikveh Israel later became an important education center for Youth Aliyah.

1870 March 1, DI YIDDSHE ZEITUNG (USA)

Published by J.K. Buchner, it became the first Yiddish weekly published in the United States. The language itself was more of a German-Yiddish and the paper was conservative rather than socialist in direction.

1870 April 14, LONDON (England) 

The United Synagogue was set up by Nathan Adler and Lionel Cahn. It united the Ashkenazic synagogues of London for charity and civic affairs.

1870 July 19, NAPOLEON III (France) 

Declared war on Prussia (Franco-Prussian War). A number of Jews, including Jules Moch and Leopold See, attained high rank in the French army. See later became Secretary general of the Ministry of the Interior. The war also marked the beginning of Rabbis serving as chaplains in the German army. After the War the region of Alsace and part of Lorraine became annexed to Germany. Many Jewish families preferred to emigrate rather than be under German rule.

1870 September 20, ROME (Italy) 

After the defeat of Napoleon, Victor Emanuel seized the Capital, breaking the power of the Papal State. On October 13 the Jews were proclaimed free while the Roman ghetto, one of the oldest and cruelest ghettos in Europe, was torn down and soon abolished. This was the last ghetto system to fall. It had lasted three hundred and fifteen years.

1870 October 24, ALGIERS

Under the leadership of Adolphe Cremieux, France granted Algerian Jews French citizenship. Up to this date they could only be naturalized individually. Approximately 35,000 Jews took advantage of this right.

1870 October 24, CRÉMIEUX DECREE

Minister of Justice Adolphe Crémieux, granted full citizenship for the Jews in French-ruled Algeria.

1870 November 9, HORACE GUENZBURG AND HIS FATHER JOSEPH UZAL (Russia)

Were granted a baronetcy by the archduke of Hesse-Darmstadt. The title was later made hereditary by Czar Alexander II. The Guenzburgs were noted for their financial institutions in Russia which helped develop railroads and mines. The family was instrumental in trying to ease the plight of Jews in the Pale.

1871 AUGUST ROHLING (Austria)

Arch anti-Semite, he published his Talmud Jude in which he claimed Jews were encouraged to cheat and attack Christians. It was often quoted in the ritual murder trial in Tiza-Eszlar (1882). He was the author of other anti-Semitic literature and was largely responsible for the outbreak of blood libels at the end of the century. In 1883 Rohling lost a libel suit against a Viennese Rabbi who accused him of not having the ability to even read the Talmud. Though Rohling was dismissed from his position at the University, his book continued to gain widespread popularity.

1871 SAN DIEGO (California, USA)

Adath Jeshurun, the first synagogue in San Diego, was founded by Louis Rose. It is now called Beth Israel.

1871 KING VICTOR EMANUEL (Italy) 

Disregarded the Pope's objection to the razing of the ghetto.

1871 - 1922 MARCEL PROUST (France) 

French writer. His mother was Jewish but he was raised in the Catholic faith. His most famous work was the seven part A la Recherche du Temps Perdu. Proust persuaded Anatole France to defend Dreyfus.

1871 - 1890 OTTO VON BISMARCK (Germany) 

Served as chancellor of Germany. Although liberal support brought him to power, he joined the reactionaries. He tried to suppress democracy and stood in the way of Jews who opposed him.

1871 March 5, - 1919 ROSA LUXEMBURG (Poland - Germany) 

Marxist revolutionary, socialist leader and economist. During WWI she was the leader of German pacifists and was arrested numerous times. After the war she helped found the Spartakusbund, which later became the Communist Party. During the uprising of 1919, she was arrested together with Karl Liebknecht and shot while being taken to prison.

1871 March 28, (Easter Sunday) FIRST MAJOR ORGANIZED POGROM WITHIN RUSSIA (Odessa)

Organized by local Greek merchants, the Jews were accused of stealing a cross. Thousands of local inhabitants joined in, supported by the police and the local governor.

1871 April 16, NORTH GERMAN CONFEDERATION (Germany)

Extended the constitution over the entire federation. This ostensibly removed all limitations on civic and citizens rights.

1871 June 11, HATZOFE B'ERETZ CHADASHA (The Observer in the New Land) (USA)

Edited by Henry Berenstein, it became the first Hebrew periodical to be published in the USA.

1871 July, ANGLO-JEWISH ASSOCIATION (England) 

Was established in London. It was based on the principles of the Alliance Israelite Universelle. It was soon imitated in Germany in the form of the Lifaverein der Dutchen Juden.

1872 GERSHON "VON" BLEICHROEDER (Germany)

Scion to the banking firm and Bismarck's personal financier. He became the first professing Jew to be raised to the nobility. All of his children converted to Christianity.

1872 NEW YORK (USA)

Discrimination against Jews began in what is now City College of New York.

1872 - 1950 LEON BLUM (France) 

Socialist, author, and critic. An activist in the socialist party, he led a coalition to win in 1936. The Vichy government arrested him in 1940 and he spent the rest of the war in an Austrian prison.

1872 REVOLUTIONARY CIRCLE (Vilna)

Was founded at the Yeshiva of Vilna. One of its organizers was by Aaron Leiberman.(1845-c.1880). They helped smuggle illegal literature into Russia, and served as a link between the Russian revolutionaries and their western supporters. In 1875 with the Russian government about to arrest them, the group broke up and Leiberman fled to London. He founded the newspaper Emet “ Truth” and is considered by some to be the first Jewish socialists.

1872 RUDOLF MOSSE (Germany)

Founded one of the great Berlin Dailies, the Berliner Tagblatt to which many Jews contributed their talents, i.e. Wolff and Bernard.

1872 April 22, BAVARIA (Germany)

Jews were granted civil rights as part of the constitution of the German Reich of 1871, though some of the special "Jewish taxes" were only abolished in 1880.

1872 May 6, SCHOOL FOR JEWISH LEARNING (Berlin, Germany)

A center for the scientific study of Judaism and a liberal rabbinical seminary was established. Also known as the Juedische Hochschule, it was formed by Ludwig Philipsson. He engaged such personalities as Abraham Geiger, David Cassel (history), and Israel Lewy (Talmud critic) as teachers.

1872 November 4, HAYYIM AMZALAK ( Eretz Israel)

Was appointed by British consul Noel Temple Moore, as British vice consul in Jaffa, where he served for 30 years. Amzalak (1828-1916), a businessman and community leader played a crucial role in the first aliyah, intervening with the Ottoman authorities whenever necessary. He was instrumental in the founding of Petach Tikva in 1878.

1873 EUROPEAN MARKET CRASH

Jews became the scapegoat for the over-speculation which occurred after the Franco-Prussian War.

1873 - 1956 LEO BAECK (Germany-England) 

Leading theologian of the Reform movement. He believed in melding modern thought with Jewish ethics. Although the Nazis permitted him to leave in 1938, he chose to remain with his congregation and spent 5 years in Theresienstadt.

1873 - 1961 OTTO LOEWI (Germany-USA) 

Biochemist and pharmacologist. Lowie's discoveries of the chemical messengers in the transmission of nerve impulses earned him the Nobel Prize (1936). Imprisoned by the Nazis in 1938 he managed to get to the USA before the war, where he was appointed Professor of Pharmacology at the College of Medicine of New York University.

1873 January 9, - 1934 CHAYIM NAHMAN BIALIK (Eretz Israel) 

Poet laureate of the Jewish national movement from his debut in 1892 (El Ha-Tsippor - To the Bird) until his death. Bialik wrote both essays and poetry in which he voiced the hopes, joys, and woes of his people. He believed that unfortunately only persecution would move people to accept Zionist aspirations. After the 1903 massacre in Kishinev, Bilalik was asked to visit the site. Afterwards he wrote Beit Ha-hareigah (In the City of Slaughter) where he condemned the cowardice of the local Jews. This served as a catalyst for the organizing of local Jewish defense units. Two of his greatest poems are Metei Midbar (Dead of the Desert) and Megillat Ha'esh (Scroll of Fire). Bialik also translated Don Quixote and William Tell into Hebrew and was president of the Hebrew Language Council.

1873 July 8, UNION OF AMERICAN HEBREW CONGREGATIONS (USA) 

Of the Reform Movement was launched in Cincinnati under the leadership of Dr. Isaac Meyer Wise.

1873 July 12, PERSIA 

Shah Nasr-ed-Din and Adolphe Cremieux met to discuss the problems of oppressive social and economic discrimination against the Jews. The Shah agreed to encourage Jewish schools, and work to improve the Jewish condition. Unfortunately, despite his intentions, the government did little to prevent attacks against the Jewish population or to rescind many of the anti-Jewish regulations.

1874 - 1853 1853 ZVI HIRSH LEHREN ( Holland)

Merchant, community leader, and philanthropist. Lehren was entrusted with overseeing the collection of funds for Eretz Israel raised by various communities known as the Halukah (Chalukah). He was also active in organizing protests during the Damascus trials of 1840. Lehren was traditionally conservative in his approach, and was against the teaching of secular studies in any school in Jerusalem.

1874 - 1926 ERIC WEISS (1874-1926) (USA) 

Better known as Harry Houdini, the master escape artist. Born in an Orthodox home and a rabbinical family, he performed publicly for 43 years. His reputation was greatest when it came to freeing himself from a wide range of chains and locks, even while under water. Houdini spent much of his time decrying and challenging super-naturalists and mediums.

1874 - 1943 GERSHON SIROTA (Ukraine - Poland) 

Hazzan. Born in Podolia, Sirota served as the cantor in the Great Synagogue, ("Tlomackie Shul") in Warsaw. Sirota was considered one of the most accomplished tenors of his day with an outstanding range. Aside from the thousands who used to come hear him in the synagogue, he made numerous concert tours in Europe and the United States. In 1903, he was invited to make 12 records, the earliest of all liturgical music. He was the only one of the great hazzanim not to leave Europe before WWII. He and his family died in the Warsaw ghetto.

1874 - 1951 SERGE KOUSSEVITZKY (Russia) 

Eminent composer and conductor. He organized his own symphony orchestra in Moscow. He left for Paris and finally Boston where he was appointed director of the Boston Symphony Orchestra.

1874 - 1949 STEPHEN SAMUEL WISE (USA) 

Rabbi, Zionist leader, and champion of liberal causes. Wise, who was ordained at age 19, became a leading advocate for the Zionist cause. Wise served as president of the American Zionist Organization and chairman of the United Palestine Appeal. As one of the founders of the World Jewish Congress he was among the first to warn about the dangers of Nazism. Wise promoted the freedom of Rabbis to deliver sermons of their choice - "free pulpit" - and not be dependent on the approval of the board of trustees. In 1907 he founded the Free Synagogue in New York and later the Jewish Institute of Religion (see 1922).

1874 September 13, - 1951 ARNOLD SCHOENBERG (Austria-USA) 

Composer and developer of the Atonal System, which was badly received at first. His works include Guirrelieder and Five Orchestral Pieces. Though born into an Orthodox family in Vienna, he was influenced by Mahler and converted to Christianity in 1898. In response to the anti-Semitic atmosphere in Germany he returned to Judaism in 1933 in a formal religious ceremony and soon after left for the United States. While in the States, he was active in helping German Jewish refugees. Schoenberg also became a staunch Zionist and, if not for his health, would have taken the position of Director of the Rubin Academy of Music in Jerusalem.

1874 November 27, - 1952 CHAIM WEIZMANN (Belarus-England-Eretz Israel) 

Statesman and scientist. Herzl inspired him, but their many clashes led him to pursue his scientific career with Zionism as a sideline. In 1905 he moved to England where he made many useful contacts. These enabled him to take part in negotiations for the Balfour Declaration. Weizmann later became the head of the World Zionist Organization and was appointed the first president of Israel in 1948. Towards the end of his career he was no longer trusted and was considered to be too pro-British. He was sent on the eve of Independence to negotiate with Truman on the subject of partition. His autobiography is entitled Trial and Error.

1875 SIEGFRIED MARCUS (Germany)

Invented the first benzene driven vehicle.

1875 - 1942 (11 Tamuz 5702) ELCHANAN WASSERMAN (Poland)

Jewish leader and talmudic scholar. An outstanding teacher, Wasserman joined the Kollel of the Chafetz Hayim (see 1838) and was considered his spiritual heir. His Yeshiva at Baranovitch was considered one of the most famous in Eastern Europe. Wasserman was one of the main leaders of Agudat Israel in Europe. A brilliant organizer and instructor, he established a grade system for rabbinical studies. He supported and contributed works to the Mussar movement. He was caught with a number of other rabbis while visiting Kovno by the Nazis and executed. His last words were: "The fire which consumes our bodies...will be that which the people of Israel will arise to a new life. His works include Ikvita D'mashicha, Ohel Torah, and Shiurei Rav Elchanan. He was a frequent contributor to the journal Sharei Tzion.

1875 GEORG CANTOR CANTOR (1845-1918) (Russia-Germany 

Mathematician, published his New Theory of the Meaning of Infinity. In it he postulates his concept of different kinds of infinity. He is known as the creator of set theory ( the collection of objects) in math.

1875 HEBREW UNION COLLEGE (Cincinnati, USA) 

Was opened with the goal of training rabbis to serve in Reform temples. Founded by Isaac Meir Wise, it is the third oldest modern rabbinical college in the world.

1875 - 1937 MAURICE RAVEL (France) 

Considered the greatest composer since Debussy. He wrote operas, ballets, orchestral and chamber music, and piano pieces. His works include the famous Bolero and Rapsodie Espagnole.

1875 - 1943 SAUL TCHERNICHOWSKY (Russia-Eretz Israel) 

Hebrew Zionist poet and considered one of the fathers of modern Hebrew poetry. He was noted for his secular humanistic tendencies in modern Jewish nationalism. Tchernichowsky, who studied medicine, served as an army surgeon during World War I and later as a medical inspector of schools in Eretz Israel. He added much to the Hebrew terminology in botany and anatomy. He also edited a dictionary of Hebrew medical terms (1931) Sefer ha-Munnahim L'Refu'ah U'Le-Madda'ei ha-Teva (The Book of Medical and Scientific Terms) and settled in Erez Israel. He was fluent in many languages including Latin and Greek and he translated into Hebrew Homer's Iliad and the Odyssey as well as Sophocles' Oedipus Rex and Shakespeare's Twelfth night and Macbeth.

1876 NEW YORK (USA)

Abraham Goldfaden established the Yiddish theater.

1876 PANAMA

Although there had been minor Jewish immigrations since 1821, it was only in 1876 that the first Jewish congregation, Kol Shearith Israel, was founded.

1876 - 1943 ARTHUR RUPPIN (Eretz Israel) 

Zionist, sociologist and father of modern Jewish demography. He founded what was later known as the Israel Land Development Authority (ILDC) which was dedicated to expanding settlement and agriculture. He also helped design new urban quarters in Jerusalem and Tel Aviv. Kfar Ruppin in the Beit Shean Valley was named after him.

1876 - 1962 BRUNO WALTER (SCHLESINGER) (Germany-USA) 

German conductor, he was forced to leave when the Nazis took power. Walter served as conductor of the New York Philharmonic and was considered one of the greatest interpreters of Mozart and Mahler.

1876 ETHICAL CULTURE MOVEMENT (USA)

Was founded by Felix Adler, a former rabbinical student. Throughout most of his life he kept himself apart from all Jewish interests. He expounded his theories through his writings, i.e. Creed and Deed, An Ethical Philosophy of Life, etc.

1876 GEORGE ELIOT (England) 

Published Daniel Deronda. As a Christian, she envisioned her protagonist finding his Jewishness, which led him to establish a Jewish Eretz Israel. The novel had a profound influence both in England and the United States, portraying a real possibility of Jews returning to a viable homeland.

1876 - 1909 SULTAN ABDUL HAMID II (Ottoman Empire) 

Considered to be a benefactor to Turkish Jews, including Jewish refugees from Romanian persecutions. On the other hand, he disregarded his own constitution and was considered a tyrant when it came to anything which he felt would weaken his authority and rule, which also included Zionism.

1877 - 1959 WANDA LANDOWSKA (Poland-USA)

Internationally renowned harpsichordist and music authority.

1877 JOSEPH SELIGMAN (USA)

Was refused admission to the Grand Union Hotel in Saratoga Springs because he was Jewish. Seligman was a renowned philanthropist and helped the Union cause during the Civil War for which in recognition, President Grant had offered him the post of Secretary of the Treasury. Judge Henry Hilton ruled that it was bad for business to allow Jews to enter the resort. Though the Grand Union Hotel was not the first incident in the USA, it received a great amount of publicity.

1877 - 1948 JUDAH MAGNES (USA-Eretz Israel) 

Rabbi and Jewish leader. Though ordained as a Reform rabbi, Magnes was a traditionalist and became close to Solomon Schechter. He was instrumental in helping establish the American Jewish Committee together with his brother-in-law Louis Marshall. Magnes was a strong Zionist who believed in Jewish defense while accepting the unique role of Zionism as proposed by Ahad Ha'am. In 1922 he immigrated to Eretz Israel and helped establish the Hebrew University where he served as chancellor from 1925-35 and first president (1935-48) until his death.

1877 July 24, HENRY WARD BEECHER (USA) 

A friend of Joseph Seligman's, he preached a sermon against anti-Semitism. Despite this appeal to reason, the policy of social discrimination soon became widespread.

1878 NAPHTALI HERZ IMBER (1856-1909)(Jassy, Romania)

Wrote a poem Tikvatenu ("Our Hope"). That same year Samuel Cohen, set it to the music of a Moldavian-Rumanian folk song, Carul cu Boi ("Cart and Oxen"). By 1905 it had become the unofficial anthem of the Zionist congress. Hatikvah became the official anthem at the 18th Zionist Congress in Prague in 1933.

1878 - 1953 (15 Cheshvan 5714) AVRAHAM YESHAYAHU KARELITZ (Chazon Ish) (Vilna, Eretz Israel) 

Talmudist, halachist, and author of more than 40 books. Most of his works deal with the application of Halacha (Jewish Law) to modern life in a Jewish state. Despite the fact that he never held an official position, his influence on Halacha in modern society is well-nigh incalculable. After immigrating to Israel he devoted himself to the establishment of yeshivot, and was also instrumental in the founding of a city dedicated to strict Orthodoxy - Bnei Brak.

1878 - 1967 CLAUDE BLOCH (USA) 

Admiral and commander-in-chief of the United States Fleet(1938-1940. Bloch was a graduate of the Naval Academy and fought in both the Spanish-American War where he was decorated and in the Chinese expedition to suppress the Boxer rebellion. Bloch became a Rear Admiral in 1923 and in 1927 he commanded the battleship California. In 1938 Bloch was made commander-in-chief of the United States Fleet and served as the Commander of the Shore Installation at Pearl Harbor. Bloch retired a year later (he was 64). He continued to serve on the Naval Board until 1946.

1878 - 1960 (14 Nissan 5720) HAYYIM HELLER (Poland-Germany-USA)

Scholar and Rabbinical leader. He established a new type of yeshiva in Berlin which combined traditional studies with Biblical and talmudic research (Bet ha-Midrash ha-Elyon) see 1922. Heller combined vast talmudic knowledge with modern methods of textual research. In 1929 he joined the faculty of the Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary.

1878 - 1942 (21 Av 5712) JANUS KORCZAK (Henryk Goldschmidt) (Poland) 

Doctor, educator, and director of the Jewish Orphanage of Warsaw. Korczak was a pioneer in modern education and child care. He instituted a children's court run by children in his orphanage, insisting that children have rights and must be treated with respect. During the war he refused to wear the yellow star or "accept" the Nazi invasion. Despite the offer of his Polish friends to help him flee the ghetto, he refused to leave "his orphans", preferring to share their fate in Treblinka.

1878 February 8, - 1965 MARTIN BUBER (Galicia-Eretz Israel) 

Considered by many to be the most prominent philosopher of the twentieth century. As a child, he lived with his grandfather and came into contact with Hasidism, which was later reflected in his work. Most of his philosophies revolve around the I-It and I-Thou relationships of people to G-d and objects. Buber was also concerned with the "Historic" soul of the Jew. He fled in 1938 from Germany to Eretz Israel where he served as a professor in the Hebrew University. His numerous books cover many aspects of Judaism, philosophy, and existentialism.

1878 March 12, RABBI ELIJAH ABRAHAM ROSENBLIT (San Francisco, USA)

In a letter to the chief rabbi of the ottoman Empire Moses Halevi, he offered to sell the Sultan a miraculous gun ”at the lowest possible price”. The gun (according to Rosenblit) could shoot 3000 rounds per minute could be used to defeat the “evil” Russians. Although it did reach its destination, it is unknown if the sultan ever received the letter. In any case the war had ended with the defeat of the Ottoman Empire before the letter was even written.

1878 March 28, - 1963 HERBERT HENRY LEHMAN (USA) 

Politician, banker, philanthropist. Lehman began his career in the War Department under Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who was then assistant secretary of the Navy. He won the Distinguished Service Medal in World War I as an advisor to the Secretary of War. He continued with Roosevelt acting as lieutenant governor of New York in 1928, and then as governor for 5 terms starting in 1932. Lehman headed the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), and later served one term as senator. He was active in the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee and although not a Zionist, supported the establishment of a Jewish state after the Second World War.

1878 June 13, BERLIN CONGRESS (Romania) 

At a summit of European powers discussing the Balkan region, civil rights were "guaranteed" for Romanian Jews. The Romanian populace and government soon ignored this order.

1878 August 8, PETAH TIKVAH (Gate of Hope) (Eretz Israel)

A colony was established in Eretz Israel that was founded by a group of Orthodox Jews who wished to "work the land". It was abandoned in 1881 after Arab attacks and re-established a year later by people of the first Aliyah.

1879 KUTAIS (Georgia)

Jews were accused of murdering a Christian girl for ritual purposes. In this, one of the last ritual murder cases, the defense council tried to prove that local Monks were behind the accusations and presented a social analysis of ritual murder cases.

1879 - 1923 VLADIMIR MEDEM (Russia)

A Russian Bundist. He advocated the treatment of the Jews as a nationality (like the Poles) based on socialism. Though he was baptized in infancy, he returned to Judaism and was one of the founders of the Bund.

1879 WILLIAM MARR (Germany)

First used the term anti-Semitism in his slanderous book The Victories of Judaism over Germanism.

1879 ALBERT NEISSER (Germany) 

Discovered the bacillus of gonorrhea. Although he was baptized, he employed many Jews and encouraged them in their work.

1879 BIRTH OF MODERN ANTI-SEMITISM (Germany)

Adolph Stoecker, a German theologian and anti-Semitic leader, founded the "Christian Social Workers Party" (later known as the CSP). Orginaly designed to fight against Social Democracy, it soon became synonymous with anti- Jewish demagogy. His Christian Socialist Workingmen's Union was a front for boycotting and/or bypassing Jewish businesses in favor of those belonging to the Teutonic race. Thus, a Jew became qualified to be a Jew not by his religion (which left him the option of conversion) but by his race, which not even the baptismal waters could cure. Stoecker can also be "accredited" with making anti-Semitism a national issue.

1879 ETZ HAYYIM CONTROVERSY (Jerusalem)

With the approval of chief Rabbi Samuel Salant. Moses Montefiore made a donation to help school children study Arabic. This aroused the ire of some religious extremists, who backed by the Austrian consul, demanded that the studies cease. The British consul, Noel More (1833-1903) who was well respected, tried to intervene but was unsuccessful. The money was returned.

1879 - 1940 LEON TROTSKY (BRONSTEIN) (Russia) 

Trotsky was the son of a Jewish Odessian farmer. Believing there was no future for the Jewish people as a people, he became a contemporary of Lenin, helping him with his publication of Iskra (Spark). He was exiled and arrested many times before the Revolution. Trotsky played an important role in the Communist government and only after Lenin's death did Stalin expel him from the party. He was exiled in 1928 first to Turkey then Norway and finally to Mexico. Trotsky was assassinated on August 21, 1940 by a friend, presumably on Stalin's orders. Trotzky did not accept the concept of Jewish identity and was violently opposed to Zionism.

1879 - 1933 ROSE PASTOR STOKES (Wieslander) ( Poland-USA)

Socialist writer and co-founder of the Communist Party in the USA. Rose Stokes was active in various strikes including the shirtwaist workers' strike. She was also one of the early leaders of the birth control movement.

1879 March 14, - 1955 ALBERT EINSTEIN (Ulm, Germany-USA) 

Discovered the Theory of Relativity and a theory of photo-effect, which helped pave the way for television. He was a leading anti-war activist during World War I and again after World War II. Together with his rise to fame came his awareness of anti-Semitism, and he emigrated to the United States in 1933 after Hitler's rise to power. Einstein was an outspoken advocate of Zionism and visited Eretz Israel in 1922. His theories helped other physicists to develop the atomic bomb. A pacifist by nature, his comment upon hearing the news of Hiroshima was "Oi Vey." In 1952 he was offered the presidency of Israel as successor to Weizmann, but he declined.

1879 August 17, - 1974 SAMUEL GOLDWYN (Goldfish) (Poland-USA)

Film producer began by working in a glove factory. Forming a filmmaking partnership in 1913 with brother-in-law Jesse L. Lasky and Cecil B. de Mille, their first venture was The Squaw Man. He eventually formed Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) and produced films which included Porgy and Bess, Guys and Dolls, and The Best Years Of Our Lives. He was also famous for his fractured use of the English language which became known as Goldwynisms with such gems as "Include me out", "We are dealing with facts and not realities", and I'll give you a definite maybe."

1879 November 15, i>BERLINER ANTISEMITISMUSSTREIT : The Berlin Anti-Semitism Dispute

was begun by Heinrich Gotthard von Treitschke’s essay Our Outlook. Von Treitschke (1834 – 1896),was a German historian Reichstag member, and virulent anti-Semite. He coined the phrase “Die Juden sind unser Unglück!" ("The Jews are our misfortune!"), which was became the motto of Der Stürmer the Nazi newspaper. He was strongly opposed by Theodor Mommsen ( 1817 – 1903) a liberal nationalist and classical scholar who denounced von Treitschke.

1880 FRENCH CONQUEST OF TUNISIA

Jewish population and position declined.

1880 - 1943 MAX WERTHHEIMER (Germany-USA)

Founder of Gestalt Psychology. Using what he called the Phi phenomenon he believed that the brain "organizes static sensations into an overall apparent movement" (similar to motion pictures). Werthheimer fled Germany in the 1930's and joined the New School for Social Research in New York.

1880 RUSSIA - ORT (Russian initials for Obstchestuo Resemes lenovo Truda)

The Society for the Encouragement of Handicraft was established by Baron Horace de Guenzburg. Its goal was to organize vocational programs for poor Jews throughout the world.

1880 - 1959 ERNEST BLOCH (Switzerland-USA) 

Although Bloch was not formally traditional, his music is suffused with Jewish themes. In Bloch's words: "This it is which I seek to feel within me and to translate in my music - the sacred race - emotion that lies dormant in our souls." His well-known works include the Shelemo, Baal Shem, America (an epic rhapsody) Symphony in C Sharp Minor and Avodat HaKodesh (Sacred Service for the Sabbath).

1880 - 1920 JOSEPH TRUMPELDOR (Odessa,Ukraine-Eretz Israel) 

First Jewish commissioned officer in the Czarist army. He lost his arm while fighting at Port Arthur in the Russo-Japanese War and became the highest decorated Jewish soldier in Russia. Trumpeldor emigrated to Eretz Israel in 1911 where he met Vladimir Jabotinsky. Together they formed the Zion Mule Corps (the Jewish Legion) in 1917 to fight with the British. He returned to Riga, and with the support of Kerensky, tried to form a Jewish army to fight its way through the Balkans to Eretz Israel. He died while defending Tel Hai, a settlement near the Lebanese border.

1880 - 1961 MANIA (Wilbushewitcz) SHOCHAT (Russia -Israel)

Revolutionary and pioneer. Shochat began her revolutionary activities in Russia and set up a Jewish Workers' Party which had the backing of the czar. After its dissolution in 1903, she joined her brother in Eretz Israel. Mania was instrumental along with her husband, Israel Shochat, in the founding of HaShomer, the Jewish self-defense organization (1909). They settled in Sejera (Ilaniyah), which became the first collective settlement. In her later years she was active as a social worker in helping new immigrants.

1880 - 1957 SHOLOM ASCH (Poland-Israel)

Renowned Hebrew and Yiddish novelist. Most of his books, including Motke Ganef (Motke the Thief), reflect social realism rather than romanticism.

1880 THEODOR MOMMSEN (1817-1903) (Germany) 

Signed a declaration of German notables against anti-Semitism. A German scholar and historian, Mommsen was one of the few German Christian intellectuals to speak out against the new wave of anti-Semitism.

1880 October 5, - 1939 VLADIMIR JABOTINSKY (Odessa,Ukraine-Eretz Israel) 

Founder of the New Zionist Organization (1935), the Haganah (1920), the Jewish Legion (1917), Betar (Brit Trumpeldor) (1923), Revisionist Party (1925), and the Irgun (1937). Until he joined the World Zionist Organization, Jabotinsky was considered by Tolstoy and Pushkin to be one of Russia's most promising writers. He was soon recognized as a distinguished statesman, linguist (he wrote in over seven languages, translating Poe and Dante into Hebrew) and orator par excellence. In 1935 he split with the World Zionist Organization, accusing them of procrastinating and developing defeatist policies. He believed in 90% immigration and 10% politics, as well as the use of Hebrew only as a state language (the Establishment considered him unrealistic). In the 1930's he organized an aviation and navy school in Europe, while at the same time calling for the complete evacuation of Eastern Europe. One of the last of the hundreds of pamphlets he wrote was entitled The Eleventh Hour (1939) and it called for the immediate resettlement of 600,000 Polish Jews. He was branded an alarmist. He died of a heart attack while visiting Camp Betar in Hunter, New York.

1881 - 1897 ALGERIA

There were anti-Jewish riots throughout most of the country after Jews were granted citizenship.

1881 - 1920 NEARLY THREE MILLION JEWS (USA)

Arrived in the United States, mostly from Eastern Europe.

1881 - 1914 RUSSIA

Mass emigration. Each year more then 50,000 Jews left Russia. By the beginning of World War I 2,500,000 Russian Jews had left. Some years the numbers reached well over 100,000.

1881 - 1900 USA

600,000 Jews entered from Russian and Romania.

1881 YEMEN

The first mass emigration to Eretz Israel began.

1881 - 1917 BER BOROCHOV (Ukraine) 

Developed the Poale Zion (Zionist Labor Party). Its ideology was a synthesis between Jewish Nationalism and Marxism. He is best summed up in his own words: "Our ultimate aim is Socialism. Our immediate aim is Zionism. The class struggle is the means to achieve both aims."

1881 KARL EUGEN DUEHRING (Berlin)

German economist and philosopher, published Die Judenfrage (The Jewish question). Duehring (1833–1921) was one of the initial proponents of modern racial antisemitism, based on anthropology rather than religion. He influenced the Nazi Alfred Rosenberg who borrowed some of his ideas in his book Die Spur des Juden im Wandel der Zeiten (The Track of the Jews Through the Ages) (1920).

1881 - 1961 MAX WEBER (Poland-USA)

A painter, he studied under Rousseau and Matisse. His subjects included landscapes, still lifes, and Jewish scenes.

1881 - 1963 POPE JOHN XXIII 

The first Pope to speak out forcefully on behalf of the Jews. Pope John (1958-1963) followed the controversial Pope Pius XII who during the holocaust had never publicly condemned the murder of the Jews. Pope John was outspoken in his sympathy for those Jews slaughtered by the Nazi's. He composed a "Prayer of Repentance" in which he begged forgiveness for all that the Church had done to the Jews.

1881 SAMUEL GOMPERS (1850-1924) (London-USA) 

A Sephardic Jew, he founded the Federation of Unions, the forerunner of the American Federation of Labor. During the first four years he refused a salary and sold cigars to support his family. He later accepted one hundred dollars a month as a stipend.

1881 February 10, LA CIVILTA CATTOLICA

The official Jesuit publication (founded by Pope Pius IX) published an article justifying pogroms as a natural consequence of the Jews demanding too much liberty. The article was written by Father Giuseppe Oreglia di Santo Stefano, one of the journal's founders.

1881 March 13, ALEXANDER II OF RUSSIA WAS ASSASSINATED 

After numerous attempts by a radical revolutionary organization known as Narodnaya Volya (the Peoples' Will), they succeeded in killing the czar, and with him died his half-hearted liberalism. On the same day of his assassination he had signed an order creating two national elected commissions which would work with the council of state. He was succeeded by his son Alexander III.

1881 March 14, REIGN OF ALEXANDER III (Russia)

Devoted to medievalism, he urged the return to a Russian civilization. Alexander III attacked and persecuted liberals and revolutionaries alike. He did not though revert to reestablishing serfdom or canceling many of the judicial reforms. The most influential person during his reign was Pobestonostov, his financier and procurator of the Holy Synod, who earned the title "the Second Torquemada". The newspapers in Moscow, Kiev, and Odessa began a campaign against the Jews. The outcome of the anti-Jewish pogroms, which were to continue almost unabated until 1905, sparked the mass emigration of Jews from Russia and its environs to the West.

1881 April 25, CHANCELLOR BISMARCK (Germany) 

Accepted an anti-Semitic petition demanding, among other things, a ban on Jewish immigration. The petition bore no less than two hundred and fifty-five thousand signatures.

1881 April 28, (Easter) KHERSON, ELIZABETHGRAD (Russia) 

A tavern dispute on blood libels spawned massive outbreaks against the Jews (in which soldiers often joined) in Kiev (May 12) and Odessa (May 15). In all, over a 223 pogroms occurred in Russia over the next two years. Ignatyev, the Minister of the Interior, insisted that the Jews caused the pogroms. General Drenbien refused to endanger his troops "for a few Jews".

1881 October 6, JUDAH LEIB LEVIN

Urged in the Hamgid magazine for Jews to go to America rather than Eretz Israel . “It is a country settled by enlightened people... the holy land where we would be slaves to the sultan." Levin (1844-1925) known as Yehalel, was a well known Hebrew poet and socialist. This debate was of vital importance at this time. Within 10 years almost 200,000 people would leave Russia approximately 75% of them would go to the United States.

1881 December 25, WARSAW (Poland)

Anti-Jewish riots began in Poland. In Warsaw twelve Jews were killed, many others were wounded, and some women were raped. Two million rubles worth of property was destroyed. All of this led to an increase of emigration to the west.

1882 PROPAGANDA VEREIN (USA)

First Jewish Socialist organization in the United States.

1882 - 1961 ARTUR SCHNEBEL (Austria-USA)

Pianist and modern composer, he came to the United States from Austria in 1938. His interpretations of Mozart, Beethoven, and Shubert earned him world renown.

1882 SLOBODKA YESHIVAH (Lithuania-Eretz Israel)

Was founded by one of the leaders of the Mussar movement, R. Nathan Zevi Finkel. Though important in its own right, it expanded greatly after the Yeshiva of Volozhin was closed by the Czar in 1892. The Yeshiva grew to 300 students before the end of the century and to over 500 by 1920. After difficulties with the Lithuanian government in 1924, it opened a branch in Hebron. The Arab massacre in 1929 forced it to move again, this time to Jerusalem where it took the name the Hebron yeshiva. The original yeshiva reopened in Bnei Brak after World War II.

1882 - 1928 ARNOLD ROTHSTEIN "The Brain" (USA) 

Gambler and criminal mastermind known as The Czar of the Underworld, Rothstein began his career as a traveling salesman. He was accredited with being the designer of the synthesis between big business and organized crime. Rothstein had his hands in everything, including allegedly fixing the outcome of the 1919 World Series. He was also the archetype for the underworld boss. His students were a Who's Who of crime, including Meyer Lansky and Lucky Luciano. Rothstein was killed over a gambling debt, but although he was dying, he refused to name his murderer.

1882 EDMUND MENAHEM EISLER (Slovakia) 

Wrote Ein Zukunftsbild which envisions a Jewish state ruled by a constitutional monarchy and divided into tribes with Hebrew as its national language. He described a modern exodus and predicted a Europe without Jews after anti-Jewish persecution that would be led for the most part by Germany. Eisler wrote his book 17 years before Herzl's The Jewish State.

1882 - 1965 FELIX FRANKFURTER (USA) 

United States Supreme Court judge, Harvard Professor of Law, and founder of the Civil Liberties Union. Frankfurter was known as a liberal and close associate of Brandeis as well as an early supporter of the Zionist movement.He is also remembered for his role in the Sacco and Vanzetti case.

1882 - 1943 (19 Nissan 5703) MENACHEM ZEMBA (Poland)

One of the prewar religious intellectual giants. A Gur Hassid, he published twenty manuscripts. Many others, including a 1,000 page commentary on the Jerusalem Talmud, were lost during the war. Locked in the Warsaw Ghetto, he inspired people to fight back, quoting halachic (lawful) demands to resist the Germans "with unequalled determination and valor for the sake of the sanctification of God".

1882 - 1933 YOSSELE ROSENBLATT (Ukraine-Israel) 

Hazzan. Born into a Hasidic family, he showed early promise as a singer-cantor. He developed into one of the most popular cantor-composers of his era. He is remembered for his operatic works and many of his liturgical compositions are still in use today.

1882 January, COUNT NIKOLAI IGNATYEV (Russia) 

The anti-Semitic minister of the Interior. He was requested by Alexander III to set up local commissions of inquiry into the blame for the recent pogroms. Ignatyev determined that they were caused by "Jewish exploitation." This led to the publishing of the May laws. In his desire to rid himself of the Jewish population, Ignatyev allowed Jews to emigrate. This resulted in massive immigration to the west. Alexander himself commented upon hearing about the pogroms "And I, to admit the truth , am glad when the Jews are being beaten".

1882 January 21, BILU MOVEMENT (Ukraine-Eretz Israel) 

As a result of the pogroms of the previous year, the Russian students at the University of Khrakov formed their own pioneering Zionist group called BILU, for Beit Ya'akov Lekhu Ve-nelkha (House of Jacob Let Us Rise and Go) (Isaiah 2:5). Led by Israel Belkind, it called for active colonialization of Eretz Israel. The BILU aspired to both a political-economic, as well as spiritual-national revival ("de retablir la situation").

1882 March 29, (Easter) BALTA (Ukraine)

During a local pogrom, the Jews succeeded in defending themselves until local police and soldiers disarmed and arrested many of them. During the night around 5,000 peasants arrived in the city. The local priest, Radzionovsky, with the help of some of the militia, held the crowed back for an hour until the arrival of the heads of the army garrison and the district police who directly ordered the soldiers to step aside. Forty Jews were killed, 20 women raped, 170 wounded, and 1,250 dwellings destroyed, leaving fifteen thousand Jews in total poverty.

1882 April 1, TIZA-ESZLAR (Hungary)

A blood libel began when a servant girl went missing. Although not the slightest evidence was found that Jews were even remotely involved, the young son of the janitor of the synagogue was interrogated - whereby he described full details of the "murder." The Jews were then accused of having the girl kidnapped for ritual murder purposes. Fifteen people were brought to trial despite the protests of Lajos Kossuth (non-Jewish leader of the Hungarian Independence Movement) and the fact that the girl's body was found in the river. A year later all of them were acquitted.

1882 April 10, PODALIA (Russia)

A pogrom left 40 dead, 170 wounded, and 1,250 dwellings destroyed. Fifteen thousand Jews were reduced to total poverty.

1882 May 15, ALEXANDER III ISSUED THE MAY LAWS (Russia) 

Based on the "findings" of Count Ignatyev's commissions, the May or "Temporary" Laws were issued. Jews were banished from all rural areas and towns of less than ten thousand people, even within the Pale. Strict quotas were placed on the number of Jews allowed into higher education. As formulated by Konstantin Pobedonostev, the Russian statesman and anti-Semite, they were designed to "cause one-third of the Jews to emigrate, one-third to accept baptism, and one-third to starve". These laws remained in quasi-effect until 1914 and provided the impetus for migration to America as well as expanded interest in the settlement of Eretz Israel.

1882 July 6, FIRST BILU SETTLERS ARRIVED (Eretz Israel) 

The first group of 14 settlers arrived and hired themselves out as agricultural laborers at Mikve Yisrael and Rishon L'Tzion.

1882 July 31, RISHON LEZION - THE FIRST ALIYAH(Eretz Israel) 

Was founded by a group of 10 families. Later that year, Baron Edmond de Rothschild, in response to the Russian pogroms and a plea by Rabbi Samuel Mohilever, agreed to help the new Moshava. The settlement marked the beginning of the first Aliyah (going up) to Eretz Israel, and the beginning of Rothschild's deep involvement with settlement activities.The first Aliyah which lasted until 1904 came in three waves 1882-1884 comprising of Romanian and Russian Jews, 1890-91 from Russia and 1900-1903 from Russia and Eastern Europe. Most of the immigrants came due to harsh persecution and pogroms, economic disasters, the influence of the Hovevei Zion and the fact that there was in place a mass emigration movement throughout eastern Europe - although mostly to the United States. Around 30-40,000 Jews arrived during these periods bringing the Jewish population to 55,000.

1882 September 10, FIRST INTERNATIONAL ANTI-JEWISH CONGRESS (Dresden, Germany) 

Presided over by Adolf Stoecker, founder of the Christian Socialist Party, court chaplin to Kaiser Wilhelm, and a member of the Reichstag for almost 20 years

1882 October 17, LEON PINSKER (Poland) 

Published his Auto-Emancipation as a result of the Russian pogroms of the previous year. Pinsker advocated establishing a homeland as a cure for anti-Semitism. Eretz Israel was not his original suggestion, and only later did he join the fledgling Zionist movement.

1882 December 12, ROSH PINA (Eretz Israel) 

Was founded by 130 Romanian Jews. Ironically they arrived on a ship to Beirut named the Titus.. The settlement was originally founded by residents of Safed in 1878 who had named it Gei Oni ("Valley of My Strength) but was abandoned after less then two years.

1883 - 1944 AARON ABRAHAM KABAK (Russia-Eretz Israel)

An outstanding early Hebrew novelist. Kabak authored many novels and short stories which were very popular. His historical trilogy on Solomon Molcho is considered the first historical novel in Hebrew.

1883 MACHZIKEI TALMUD TORAH (USA)

Was established in New York and in Chicago as a religious day school.

1883 HARTUV (Artuf) ( Eretz- Israel)

Land near the today’s town of Beit Shemesh, was purchased to set up an agricultural settlement by the Jewish Refugees fund”. Headed by Lord Aberdeen its purpose was to provide Russian refugees with work and to eventually convert them - it lasted 3 years. Twelve years later it was bought and settled by Jews from Bulgaria. rnrn

1883 - 1936 LEV KAMENEV (Rosenfeld) (Russia) 

Revolutionary writer and Soviet leader. A colleague of Lenin's, he co-edited revolutionary journals. Prior to the Revolution, Kamenev lead the movement in Tiflis, Georgia, and supposedly introduced Stalin to Lenin. Kamenev married Trotsky's sister, who asked him to edit his Party newspaper Pravda. After Lenin's death, he formed a triumvirate together with Stalin and Zinoviev which forced Trotsky into exile. Later, realizing Stalin's true direction of becoming a dictator, he began to oppose him. This cost him his power and eventually his life. Kamenev was executed in 1936 after a show trial.

1883 February 4, COUNT K.I. PAHLEN (Russia)

Was commissioned by Alexander III to "Study of the Current Laws Concerning the Jews" . His report, issued on May 24, 1888, recommended by a majority opinion "changing the system of laws and restrictions for a system of graduated laws of freedom and equality". They counted around 650 special laws concerning the Jews." The czar decided to accept the minority report by Count Dimitri Tolstoy, to continue the policy of preventing Jews from leaving certain areas and even instituted a quota for Jews at universities and secondary schools.

1883 July 4, - 1924 FRANZ KAFKA (Germany) 

Author who combined psychological analysis and moral philosophy in his brilliant works, i.e. The Trial, The Castle, and America. His metaphysical thinking was reflected in his belief in the "indestructible" in men who are always "guilty". Kafka became one of the most influential writers of the 20th century. He had little contact with Judaism and considered temple services "boring", yet as he grew older he began to take an interest in Zionism tried to learn Hebrew and even considered the idea of emigrating to Eretz Israel. None of Kafka's novels was printed during his lifetime. In spite of his instructions to destroy his manuscripts after his death, his friend Max Brod published them.

1884 BULGARIA

Anti-Jewish riots began and continued until 1904. Many Jews immigrated to Anatolia, Turkey.

1884 HERMAN ARON (1845-1913) (Germany)

Invented the electric meter. While watching his father repair clocks he hit upon the idea of measuring electricity by passing the current through a clock pendulum and noting how fast the hands moved. He also pioneered the wireless telegraph.

1884 LADINO (Bulgaria)

The first Ladino (Judeo-Spanish) newspaper La Alborada (Dawn) was published in Bulgaria

1884 PERSIA

As a result of constant persecutions Jews began to emigrate to Eretz Israel.

1884 HECHLER PUBLISHED “THE RESTORATION OF THE JEWS TO PALESTINE.”

William Hechler (1845 -1931) an Anglican minister, had traveled to Eastern Europe two years earlier to investigate anti-Semitism. There he met with Leon Pinsker who introduced him to modern Zionism. In Hechler's pamphlet, he called for the Jews to return to Eretz Israel. Hechler attended the first Zionist congress and formed a strong relationship with Herzl. He made great efforts to encourage close ties between the grand duke of Baden and Herzl and even tried to arrange a meeting between Herzl and the czar. His house was also a museum which included Montefiore's carriage, which he donated to the Eretz Israel museum upon his death.

1884 November 6 - 8, HOVEVEI ZION (HIBBAT ZION)(Lovers of Zion) (Germany) 

Was founded in Kattowitz, Germany (which is now known as Katowice, Poland). Thirty-six delegates met in the first Pre-Herzl Zionist Conference. Rabbi Mohilever was elected president and Leon Pinsker was elected chairman. Under their guidance they tried to secure financial help (from Baron Edmond de Rothschild and others) for the new Jewish settlements to organize educational courses as well as counsel them about religious guidelines. They are considered the forerunner and foundation of the modern Zionist movement. This movement was mostly active in Russia and Romania, but it had branches throughout Europe and even some in the USA. Due in part to their precarious position within Eastern Europe, the Hovevei Zion did not deal with Zionism as a political movement.

1885 RABBI MOSES GASTNER (Romania)

One of the foremost authorities on Romanian literature and folklore, he was exiled to England after he protested Romanian anti-Jewish policies.

1885 NESS TZIONA SOCIETY (Russia)

Was founded at theVolozhin Yeshiva ( Etz Hayyim), with the quiet support of Rabbi Berlin. The society which had 50 members in its first year, was kept secret so as not to upset the czarist government ,and was dedicated to encouraging the rebuilding of the land of Israel. When the Russian police closed it, a new society was formed, Netzach Yisrael (1891). Among the founders was Chayim Nachman Bialik.

1885 - 1940 BERNARD (DOV) REVEL (Lithuania - USA)

Rabbi and educator. Revel began his studies in Europe at the famous Telz Yeshiva. After graduating with a M.A. from NYU and a doctorate from Dropsie College, the first awarded at that school, he decided to move to Oklahoma and work in his father-in-law's oil business. In 1915, he was asked to serve as dean of the Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary in New York. Revel's dream was to combine secular and tradition education. With this in mind he opened a state-accredited high school, the talmudical Academy (1916), and despite fierce opposition, Yeshiva College (1928) which later became Yeshiva University.

1885 - 1944 GEORGE MANDEL (France)

Politician and journalist, possessed a photographic memory. His mentor was Georges Clemenceau. Mandel was a member of the Chamber of Deputies for 17 years. As early as 1933 he warned of the danger of war with Germany. During the war he was captured by the Germans and murdered by the Vichy.

1885 - 1962 NIELS BOHR (Denmark) 

Physicist and Nobel laureate. Developed the theory on the nature of the atom. During the Nazi occupation, he was rescued and taken to Sweden. The Allies were under pressure to take him to London so that he could work on the atom bomb project. Bohr refused to leave until he had a firm promise from King Gustav of Sweden to give sanctuary to any Danish Jew reaching his shore. Only once the agreement was made public did he agree to leave for London.

1885 January 27, - 1945 JEROME KERN (USA)

Songwriter. One of America's great composers of popular songs, Kern wrote over 1,000 songs for more than 100 shows and films. He won two Academy Awards, one for The Last Time I Saw Paris and the other for The Way You Look Tonight. Other famous songs include Smoke Gets In Your Eyes and from his famous collaboration with Oscar Hammerstein in Show Boat, Ol? Man River.

1885 July 9, SIR NATHANIEL MEYER ROTHSCHILD 

Became the first Jewish peer in England as Lord Rothschild. After a long and bitter fight, he took his seat in the House of Lords. The Christian oath was amended so that non-Christians could also serve in the House of Lords.

1885 July 12, - 1920 AMEDEO MODIGLIANI (Livorno, Italy)

Painter and sculptor. One of the first great Jewish artists with a flair for the human (mainly female) body. Most of his paintings are memorable for their long necks and oval faces and earthy tones.

1885 November 16 - 18, PITTSBURGH PLATFORM (USA) 

A council on Reform Judaism which rejected the Messianic concept and the return to Eretz Israel. The platform took Reform further than the English Reform movement in that it also rejected dietary laws, some Mosaic legislation, and the Talmud. The platform was adopted four years later by the Reform Rabbinical organization, the Central Conference of American Rabbis (CCAR). Many rabbis resented the extremes to which Reform had gone and formed their own groups (i.e. Sabato Morais, 1823) which led to the creation of the Conservative movement.

1886 JEWISH THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY (USA)

Was founded in New York by Dr. Sabato Morais. The goal of the Jewish Theological Seminary was the training of rabbis and teachers in traditional Judaism. It is generally considered to lean more towards Conservatism than Orthodoxy.

1886 - 1969 (9 Nissan 5729) ARYEH LEVIN ("Father of the Prisoners") (Eretz Israel) 

Known as Reb Aryeh, he was ordained by Rabbis Chaim Berlin and Samuel Salant. He devoted himself to volunteer work at the leper hospital and the prison in Jerusalem, as well as working in a yeshiva. He considered visiting and helping those jailed by the British Mandatory Government his special mission. Reb Aryeh consistently refused all honors, choosing to live in near poverty in the Mishkenot section of Jerusalem.

1886 - 1939 BELA KUN (Hungary) 

A young supporter of Lenin, he eventually became the head of the Hungarian government, forming a Soviet Republic. Kun refused to tolerate any opposition and his harsh line alienated the peasants. He was forced to flee after a series of disasters. Kun was killed by Stalin in 1939. Although totally alienated from Judaism he did appoint other Jews to governmental positions. After his collapse, anti-Jewish riots broke out. Approximately 7,000 were murdered.

1886 EDUARD DRUMONT (France)

Published his notorious anti-Semitic harangue La France Juive in which he attributed all of France's ills to the Jews. His writings helped provoke and maintain the Dreyfus Affair.

1886 - 1937 SIMON DIMANSTEIN (Russia)

Communist leader. Dimanstein received rabbinical ordination by Haim Ozer Grodzenski but became active in the revolutionary movement. After the revolution, he became minister of Labor in Lithuania. He edited Der Emess, an anti-religious, anti-Zionist, and anti-Bundist periodical. He became head of the Institute for National Minorities and was a strong proponent of Jewish settlement in Birobidzhan. His early closeness to Joseph Stalin didn't prevent his execution during the purges of 1937.

1886 February 12, HA-YOM (Russia)

The first Hebrew daily newspaper was published in St. Petersburg, Russia

1886 March 15, YESHIVA ETZ CHAIM (USA)

Was founded in New York. It was the first American yeshiva to include the study of Talmud.

1886 May 26, - 1950 AL JOLSON (Lithuania-USA)

Entertainer. Jolson, born Asa Yoelson the son of a cantor(hazzan), became one of the big stars of vaudeville and an early film star. He loved to work the audience and and after singing for three hours with incredible energy, he could still call out: "You ain't heard nothin' yet." Jolson was successful in Broadway musicals and starred in the first full length talking movie The Jazz Singer in (1927) which reflected his own life. He was also the first entertainer to perform overseas for the USO (United Service Organization). He died soon after returning from performing for the troops in Korea. His two signature songs were Swanee and My Mammy.

1886 October 16, - 1973 DAVID BEN GURION (Poland-Eretz Israel) 

Came to Eretz Israel as David Green in 1906. He joined the Jewish legion, rose in the ranks of the Zionist Labor Party, and created the Histadrut or Labor Confederation. Ben Gurion formulated the official Zionist policies during the Second World War and became Israel's first Prime Minister. He founded his own party (MAPAI) and joined with the religious parties and the general Zionist party to form a coalition. He served on and off until 1963 as Minister of Defense and Prime Minister. He played an important part in the Israeli victory in 1956. After 1963 he retired to a kibbutz (Sde Boker) in the Negev, which he called on the younger generation to settle.

1886 December 25, - 1929 FRANZ ROSENZWEIG (Germany) 

Born into an assimilated Jewish family, he decided to convert to Christianity by first discovering Judaism. He never converted, but became a practicing Jew and renowned philosopher. His book, Star of Redemption, centered on the part that tradition should play in the life of a Jew and the role of Judaism in the world. Later in life he became paralyzed but continued to dictate his works to his wife. He helped create the Free Jewish House of Study in Frankfurt, and collaborated with Buber on a new translation of the Bible.

1887 NEW RESTRICTIONS (Russia)

Although Jews were forcibly conscripted into the army, they were banned from all military schools. This was soon followed by Jews being prohibited from joining the army medical corps and military bands. At the same time, Jewish communities were severely fined if the quota of Jewish conscripts wasn't reached. In addition, new education restrictions were instituted: no more than ten percent of Jews in the Pale and five percent outside the Pale were allowed to attend University.

1887 - 1959 ZALMAN SHNEOUR (Sklow, Belarus)

Radical Hebrew poet. His verse on the first Russian revolution served as an inspiration for younger generation radicals. In 1913 Shneour accurately predicted in his poetry the rise of anti-Semitism in Europe. His poems on the shtetl are some of his most widely published works, and although he also achieved recognition as a Yiddish poet his real fame lies as one of the great modern Hebrew poets.

1887 - 1934 (7 Cheshvan 5695) MEIR SHAPIRO (Poland) 

Rabbi, communal leader, educator and founder of Chachmei (Hakhmei) Lublin Yeshiva, the first with modern facilities. Shapiro was elected to the Polish Sejm in 1923 and served as one of the most forceful defenders of Polish Jewry for two years. He was the innovator of Daf Yomi, the learning of a page of Talmud a day, as a means for encouraging adult education. This method enables one to complete the Talmud in 7.5 years. Though he died at a young age, he left a heritage which remains a unifying factor throughout Orthodox Jewry today.

1887 - 1970 MORRIS COHEN ("Two Gun Cohen") (Canada) 

General, marksman, and gunrunner to the Chinese army. He served in World War I and later, due to his personal friendship with the local Chinese community in Canada, as Sun Yat Sen's personal bodyguard, saving his life a number of times. Chaing Kai-Shek appointed him a general in the Kuomintang Army. He trained the Chinese army against Japan. Cohen was captured by the Japanese and tortured. He was only released after the end of the war. He was one of the few people who tried to reconcile the two Chinese factions (nationalist and communist) and was always welcomed by both governments.

1887 - 1976 RENE SAMUEL CASSIN (France) 

French jurist and Nobel Laureate. Cassin served as a legal advisor to the League of Nations and served with General Charles de Gaulle during World War II. With the founding of the United Nations Cassin was the chief architect of the Declaration of Human Rights and served as president of the European court of Human Rights. His work earned him the Nobel Peace Prize. Cassin was also active in helping rebuild the Jewish communities in France and North Africa after the war.

1887 - 1946 SIDNEY HILLMAN (Lithuania - USA)

Although originally trained for the rabbinate, Hillman became active at a very early-stage in the trade union movement (the Bund) in Lithuania. After spending time in jail for illegal activities, he immigrated first to England and then to the United States. There he helped establish the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America (ACWA). As its president, he was responsible for a 44 hour work week and unemployment insurance. In 1935, he helped establish the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). Hillman was a strong Zionist and joined the Jewish Agency in 1929. During WWII he was Roosevelt's chief labor advisor.

1887 THEODOR FRITSCH (1852-1933) (Germany) 

Founded the Hammer Publishing House, which specialized in anti-Semitic publications. Fritsch, one of the mentors of the Nazi movement, worked to repeal the emancipation law and later became a member of the Nazi Reichstag.

1887 January 2, JEWISH THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY ASSOCIATION (USA) 

The educational and spiritual center of Conservative Judaism. It was opened under the leadership of Sabato Morais. Morais, a rabbi of Congregation Mikve Israel in Philadelphia, sought to train rabbis who would help preserve Jewish traditions which he felt were being eroded by the "reformers" and their Pittsburgh Platform. In 1902, under Solomon Schechter, the Seminary was reorganized and the name changed to JTS.

1887 January 28, - 1982 ARTHUR RUBINSTEIN (Poland-USA) 

One of the greatest pianists of the 20th century. Rubinstein performed at an early age with Joseph Joachim in Berlin. In his early years, he was famous for his interpretations of Chopin. After settling in the United States, he toured extensively giving up to 150 concerts a year. Rubinstein had a strong connection with Israel and Judaism; refusing to play in Germany after WWII and supporting Israel at every chance. The Rubinstein International Piano Master Competition was established in Israel in 1974. He played into his eighties and wrote two autobiographies, My Young Years and My Many Years.

1887 June 7, - 1990 MARC CHAGALL (Vitebsk, Russia-France) 

Artist, famous for his folkist fairy-tale cubist paintings of Eastern Europe. He helped establish the Russian Yiddish state theater. Later he went to live in Paris, where he was friendly with Modigliani and Soutine. Chagall designed the stained glass windows of the Hadassah Hospital synagogue in Jerusalem. His works are also displayed at the New York Metropolitan Opera House, the Paris Opera, the United Nations, the Cathedral at Metz, and the Knesset.

1888 - 1969 THEODORE REIK (USA)

Psychoanalyst and disciple of Freud. Reik is credited with spreading the popularity of psychoanalyses in the USA and founded the National Psychological Association for Psychoanalysis. He wrote over 50 books on everything from his psychoanalytic theories in Listening with the Third Ear and Masochism and the Modern man to Pagan Rites in Judaism and Jewish Wit which analyses Jewish Humor.

1888 UNITED HEBREW TRADES (USA)

Established in New York by Morris Helquit as a Jewish union. Its official correspondence was carried out in Yiddish.

1888 - 1959 (19 Tamuz 5719) ISAAC HALEVI HERZOG (Eretz Israel) 

Rabbi Herzog, who also held a doctorate in literature, served as the Chief Rabbi in the Irish Free State. He succeeded Rabbi Kook as Chief Rabbi in Eretz Israel in 1936, a post he held for 22 years. Herzog was respected by all walks of Israeli life. After the Holocaust, he spent 6 months in Europe searching for Jewish children who had been hidden in monasteries. His writings include Divrei Yitzchak on the Talmud, Heichal Yitzchak on responsa and Main Institutions of Jewish Law. His son Chaim became Israel's sixth President.

1888 RABBI JACOB JOSEPH (1840-1902) (Lithuania-USA)

A leading student of Rabbi Israel Salanter, was invited to head the New York Orthodox Jewish Community. He served as the first and only chief Rabbi of New York City. Although he made strong inroads in improving Kashrut (dietary regulation) supervision, he was unsuccessful in instituting one Rabbinical authority to oversee it all.

1888 June 3, JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY OF AMERICA (JPS) WAS FOUNDED (USA) 

Its purpose was and is to publish books of Jewish interest in English. Among its hundreds of publications are Graetz's, Dubnow's and Baron's History of the Jews, and Ginsburg's Legends of the Jews. Other important authors included Israel Zangwill, Leo Baeck, Cecil Roth, Jacob R. Marcus, and Louis Finkelstein. They have also published the American Jewish Yearbook for nearly 100 years (1899).

1888 July 17, - 1970 SAMUEL JOSEPH AGNON (Galicia-Eretz Israel) 

Famous Hebrew novelist, Nobel Prize winner and writer of short stories. He portrayed Jewish life in Galicia and the yearning for a life in Eretz Israel. In addition to his novels he wrote two works of non-fiction: Yamim Noraim, an anthology on Yom Kippur, and Sefer, Sofer V'sippur, about books and authors.

1889 FINLAND

Jews were officially allowed to live in three cities: Helsinki, Turku, and Vyborg. Although there were already about 1,000 Jews in Finland, until this date all Jews were temporary residents and had to renew their permits every three months. They were only permitted to deal in second-hand clothes and were forbidden to leave their city of residence.

1889 GRAZIADIO ISIAH ASCOLI (Italy)

Was appointed Senator of the Realm. As one of the foremost pioneers in the field of Philology and as a Jew, he spent much of his time working on ancient Hebrew inscriptions found in Italy.

1889 - 1944 I.J. SINGER (Poland-USA)

Older brother of Isaac Bashevis Singer. He is known for his naturalistic and realistic styles of writing including Yoshe Kalb, The Brothers Ashkenazi and East of Eden.

1889 - 1919 JACOB SVERDLOFF (Russia)

Communist organizer and leader. An early communist activist, he was exiled to a prison camp on an island near the Artic circle. Sverdloff tried to escape 5 times, the last time in a small boat which capsized during a storm. After the Revolution, Stalin recognized his organizational capabilities and appointed him the first secretary of the Central Committee. Sverdloff worked closely with both Stalin and Lenin, ensuring that the Bolshevik faction would be the strongest. In his honor the city Yekaterinburg was renamed Sverdlovsk.

1889 JEWISH COLONIZATION OF ARGENTINA

First began. Although Jews had been living in Argentina since the beginning of the 17th century they only received rights in 1853. To a great extent this was achieved through the efforts of Baron de Hirsch's Jewish Colonial Association (JCA). A census taken two years earlier showed 366 Jews in Buenos Aires.

1889 POLNO (Poland)

A young Jew named Hilsner was imprisoned on a ritual murder charge. Although there wasn't any real incriminating evidence, he was kept in jail until after the Revolution in 1918.

1889 RUSSIA

Jews were not allowed to practice law without a special permit.

1889 ISAAC ALGAZI (Izmir, Turkey – Montevideo, Uruguay)

Cantor and early Sephardic recording artist. And know as “Ne’im Zemirot Israel “(Sweet Singer of Israel). Algazi was a third generation cantor , the scion of a family who had roots in turkey since the very beginning of the 17th century. He was a pioneer in recording ladino (Judeo-Spanish) folk songs , religious music, and classic Turkish music.

1889 - 1970 BESSIE ABRAMOWITZ HILLMAN (Russia-USA)

Labor leader and activist. In September 1910, she led 16 women to strike against poor working conditions. Eventually 40,000 people joined the strike, paralyzing the industry. Abramowitz joined with labor leader Sidney Hillman (whom she would marry) to found Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America (ACWA). She served in the AFL-CIO, and was an early and strong supporter for the Civil Rights Movement. President John F. Kennedy appointed her to the President’s Commission on the Status of Women.

1889 - 1974 WALTER LIPPMAN (USA) 

Columist and Journalist. Lippman was for several years an assistant to the philosopher George Santayana, a position which undoubtedly influenced his journalistic approach. He won two Pulitzer prizes, one in 1958 and the other in 1962. His daily column was read internationally. His nearly 30 books include The Cold War (1947), The Public Philosophy (1955), and Drift and Mastery (1961).

1890 - 1976 FRITZ LANG (Germany-France-USA) 

Film director - Lang began his career as a painter. His early expressionist films - Dr. Mabuse the Gambler, Die Nibelungen, and Metropolis - made him an important player in German film. Though offered directorship of the Third Reich's film industry by Goebbels he fled to France and then to the USA, fearing that the Nazis would discover that his mother was Jewish. His American films included Fury, Scarlet Street and While the City Sleeps. They were considered prime examples of film noir.

1890 IGNATIUS DONNELLY (USA) 

Published Caesar's Column, a utopian anti-Semitic novel showing the Jews (Israelites) as the international bankers and rulers of Europe.

1890 - 1917 SARAH AARONSOHN (Eretz Israel) 

Jewish patriot and heroine. In 1915 she witnessed the Turkish massacre of Armenians, an experience which may have triggered her joining her brother Aaron in NILI's (see 1915) spy operations against the Turks. In 1917 on a visit to Egypt she was warned by the British not to return to Eretz Israel, but she refused to comply. Upon her arrival, she warned the members of NILI to disband but remained at home in Zichron Yaakov so as to allay any suspicion. She was arrested by the Turkish military authorities on October l of the same year. After three days of torture, and fearing that she may reveal information, she managed to shoot and kill herself.

1890 - 1948 SOLOMON MIKHOELS (Russia) 

Leading Russian and Yiddish actor famed for his roles as Tevye and King Lear. During the Second World War he tried to win support for the Russian war effort by touring England and the United States. On January 13, 1948 he was killed by the secret police under Stalin's orders, as part of a campaign to eradicate Jewish intellectualism and culture.

1890 - 1952 YITZCHAK SADEH (Russia-Eretz Israel) 

A military leader, Sadeh was decorated in the Czarist army in World War I. In the wake of the Arab rebellion of 1936, Sadeh - who had helped set up the labor brigade in the 1920's - proposed moving from a policy of defending settlements to seeking out Arab units in the open. He became the first commander of the Plugot Sadeh (Field Units) of the Haganah which became known as the Palmach. Yigal Alon described him as a great lover "of country, women, and the implacable logic of history".

1890 February 22, MENAHEM USSISHKIN (Russia-Eretz Israel) 

One of the founders of the Odessa Committee. The Committee was dedicated to the practical exponent of the Hovevei Zion in establishing agricultural settlements in Eretz Israel. Ussishkin later served as president of the Jewish National Fund. He was one of the few Zionist leaders who actually settled in Eretz Israel.

1890 April 1, ZIONISM 

Nathan Birnbaum (1864-1937) in his journal Selbstemanzipation (Self Emancipation) coined the term "Zionism". Birnbaum's idea was to change the philanthropic approach of the time towards the return of Jews to Eretz Israel to a more activist or political one. Although the idea of a return to Zion had been a foundation of Jewish thought and belief since biblical times, it only became a practical political movement at this time. This was later adopted as the Basel Program by the First Zionist Congress under Herzl (see 1897).

1890 October 2, - 1977 GROUCHO (JULIUS) MARX (USA) 

Comedian and entertainer. Groucho began his career with his brothers as a singing vaudeville act organized by their mother Minnie who actually sang with them. Of all the brothers it was Groucho who attained almost icon status during his lifetime. After a string of successful movies he hosted a hit show You Bet Your Life for over ten years and published several books.

1891 - 1979 FATHER CHARLES COUGHLIN (USA)

"The Radio Priest" began his broadcasts in 1926 and by the 1930's was one of the most influential men in America with almost one third of the population listening to his anti-Semitic broadcasts. Coughlin also edited the paper Social Justice. A supporter of Roosevelt, he turned against him feeling that his reforms weren't radical enough. Though there was public protest against his broadcasts, his superiors took a surprisingly long time (1940's) before terminating his activities.

1891 - 1982 ZVI JUDAH KOOK (Eretz Israel) 

Rabbi and religious Zionist leader. Rav Zvi Judah was the son of Abraham Isaac Kook. He succeeded his father as the head of Yeshivat Mercaz Harav. His lectures dealing with the "Love of the Land of Israel" drew large crowds. Rav Kook was instrumental in encouraging his students to settle in all parts of the land of Israel. His halachic decisions within the field of modern events were published as L'Netivot Yisrael.

1891 March 5, PRESIDENT HARRISON (USA) 

Was presented with a petition by prominent non-Jews requesting an international conference to consider and bring to a just conclusion the Jewish claims to Eretz Israel.

1891 March 28 - 29, (Passover) JEWS EXPELLED FROM MOSCOW (Russia)

Grand Duke Sergei, the Czar's brother who had just become governor of Moscow, ordered the expulsion of all Jews from the city. Permission to remain was only given to those who would convert or to women who were willing to become prostitutes. In addition, a few thousand former cantonists who were registered and wealthy merchants were allowed to continue residing in Moscow. In January 1892, in middle of a deep cold spell, the Jewish quarter was surrounded and Jews who had until then avoided expulsion were hunted by the police and firemen. In all, approximately 14,000 Jewish families were expelled to the Pale.

1891 April 1, Ritual murder accusation (Corfu)

Rubina Sarda the local Jewish tailor's 8 year old daughter, was found dead. Her father Vita was immediately accused of the crime by the local constable. Others, including police, spread a rumor that the girl was not Jewish but really a Christian by the name of Maria Desylla, and was killed for ritual purposes. The local Greek orthodox leader or metropolite refused to intervene and “disappeared” until the incident was over. Despite a declaration by her teacher, confirmed by the French consul at Corfu, that she was Jewish the local Jewish community was attacked with violence spreading to other parts of Greece. Approximately 5 of the 7,000 Jews of Corfu fled by boat with their property confiscated by locals. Some were thrown overboard. None of the perpetrators were punished.

1891 May 11, - 1967 HENRY MORGENTHAU JR. (USA) 

Agricultural expert and financier. An early friend of President Roosevelt, he joined him in Washington and was named to head the Federal Farm Board. In 1934, he was appointed secretary of the Treasury where he was a strong supporter of tax reforms and responsible for the funding of Roosevelt's New Deal. Morgenthau was an early adherent of America joining in the war against Germany and was instrumental in the setting up of the War Refugee Board. He helped many Jewish organizations and served as the honorary chairman of the United Jewish Appeal.

1891 June 29, XANTEN (Germany)

Ritual murder libel. The rise of anti-Semitism culminating in this libel resulted in an exodus from Germany to the United States and other countries.

1891 August 22, - 1973 JACQUES LIPCHITZ, (Lithuania-USA )

Cubist sculptor. Lipchitz did much of his work in stone and bronze. Often with Jewish or biblical themes, he created a sculpture called The Miracles for the creation of the State of Israel. His last work, which was commissioned by Hadassah Hospital on Mt. Scopus, was a six-meter-high bronze The Tree of Life, representing the patriarchs and their descendants.

1891 August 28, WOODBINE (New Jersey, USA) 

Was established as an agricultural community with funding from Baron de Hirsch and his Baron de Hirsch Fund. The fund was dedicated to promoting rural Jewish communities in the United States and joined with the ICA (Jewish Colonial Association) in 1900. An agriculture school was established there in 1894. It became quickly apparent that it would be almost impossible to make a living only through agriculture, and light industry was also brought in. Other communities were established in New Jersey, including Vineland, Toms River, and Farmingdale, as well as many others throughout the USA. All were part of the efforts to absorb new Jewish immigrants in rural areas, as well as teach them the language and a trade.

1891 September 11, JEWISH COLONIAL ASSOCIATION (France-England) 

Was officially established by Baron de Hirsch. Other shareholders included, among others, Rothschild, Cassel, and Goldsmid. De Hirsh himself donated two million pounds and incorporated the Association in London. His plan was to promote migration of Russian and European Jews and settle them in agricultural areas in countries around the world.

1892 DAVID SCHWARTZ (Hungary)

Invented the dirigible airship. Since he died before he made his flight, his widow sold the patents to Count Zeppelin, who received the credit.

1892 WORKMEN'S CIRCLE (Arbeiter Bing) (USA)

Was formed in the United States as a Jewish labor organization. It ran its own schools, social activities, and cemetery (burial) organization.

1892 - 1982 DAVID DUBINSKY (Belarus - USA)

Pioneering labor leader. Dubinsky, like Sidney Hillman, was arrested for organizing a Bakers' Union in Lodz but managed to escape to teh USA in 1910. Arriving in New York, he rose from being an apprentice in Cutters' Local 10 to becoming president of the International Ladies Garment Workers' Union (ILGWU) from 1932-1966. Dubinsky was active in the Jewish Labor Committee and a supporter the Histadrut, Israel's General Federation of Labor.

1892 ELHANAN LEWINSKY (1857-1910) (Russia)

A Hebrew writer who published a utopian view of the Zionist dream, A Journey to the Land of Israel in the Year 2040. Lewinsky combined his job as the representative of Carmel wines with that of a Zionist leader traveling throughout Russia. He was a prolific journalist who made use of humor and Jewish legends in his writing.

1892 KAISER WILHELM II (1859-1941) (Germany) 

Fired Adolph Stoecker for excessive socialism, but not for his anti-Semitism. Stoecker's Christian Socialist Party fell along with him, although anti-Semitism continued to be considered respectable.

1892 January, CZARIST GOVERNMENT (Russia)

Closed the Volozhin Yeshiva after Rabbi Berlin (see 1817) refused to agree to the new Russian decrees. These included, reducing the number of students, prohibiting night time study, and limiting study to ten hours per day of which six would be dedication to secular studies. . The Rabbi and his family were exiled. Although the Yeshiva eventual reopened, it never attained its former glory. The last 50 students and the Rosh Yeshiva, Rabbi Hayyim Wolkin, were murdered by the Nazis at Ponar.

1892 July 10, L'OSSERVATORE ROMANO

The official Vatican Newspaper publishes an article supporting ritual blood accusation. The article claimed that there were many unimpeachable witnesses to the “fact” that Jews use Christian blood for preparing Matzo.

1892 October 20, EDUARD SCHNITZER (Emin Pasha) (1840-1892) (Austria-Africa)

Was assassinated. He had taken on the Turkish name Emin Pasha and traveled throughout Africa as an explorer, linguist, adventurer, administrator, and especially as a doctor. He spent much of his time in Khartoum (in the Sudan) while serving as a governor under General Gordon. Pasha was a tireless fighter against the slave trade which was still rampant. He had returned to Central Africa on a semi-political voyage for Germany when he was murdered by slave traders.

1893 BUKHARA (Russia)

After the "May laws" were issued, many Jews decided to leave for Israel. The Bukharim set up their own community in Jerusalem.

1893 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF JEWISH WOMEN (USA)

Was created by German Jews to protect immigrant girls from white slave traders. Founded by Hannah Solomon, it also established educational, social, and cultural services for women. It was the first national women's Jewish organization in the United States.

1893 - 1963 ABBA HILLEL SILVER (USA) 

Reform rabbi, Jewish leader, orator and prominent Zionist. Silver's pro-Zionist ideas were considered highly unusual at the Hebrew Union College at that time. He served as a congregational rabbi in Cleveland from the age of 24 until his death. Silver was a founder of the United Jewish Appeal (today the United Jewish Communities) and helped organize a German boycott after the take over by the Nazi party. He also was one of the few who openly criticized Roosevelt's anti- Zionist policy even during the war. After the creation of the State of Israel, he was shunted aside by Ben Gurionwho resented Silver's position in fundraising and allocations.

1893 - 1950 HAROLD JOSEPH LASKI (England) 

Political scientist and socialist leader in England. A prolific writer and lecturer, his works include: Grammar of Politics, Democracy in Crisis and The American Democracy. He favored assimilation until World War II, when he became an outspoken Zionist.

1893 JUSTINAS PRANAITIS (St. Petersburg, Russia)

"Proved" that Jews used the blood of Christian children in the baking of matzos. In 1911 he was the "expert" witness in the Beilis trial.

1893 - 1965 MARGARETE SOMMER (Germany)

Catholic social worker. During the Holocaust, she helped protect Jews from deportation to death camps and hide them whenever possible. She was also a leader in the Catholic resistance circle of Berlin. In August 1942 she composed a report which was sent to Rome, regarding the deportation of Jews and the conditions in concentration camps. Sommer together with Konrad Preysing, the German prelate of the Roman Catholic Church, made a major effort to get the Catholic Church to speak out and even drafted a statement for the Fulda Conference in 1943. The declaration would have condemned German atrocities, but they were stymied by Cardinal Adolf Bertram who chaired the conference. Yad Vashem recognized Margarete Sommer as Righteous Among the Nations.

1893 - 1940 MORDECHAI FRIZIS (Greece)

Greek war hero. Mounted on his horse he led his troops against an Italian attack. Though seriously wounded he continued to encourage his troops from on top his horse until he died . With the rank of colonel, he was the first high ranking Greek officer to be killed in World War II.

1893 RICHARD WOLFINSTEIN (Germany)

A chemist, discovered hydrogen peroxide.Wolfinstein (1864-1926) is also noted for his discover of a organic reaction known today as the Wolffenstein–Böters reaction.

1893 March 26, CENTRAL SOCIETY OF GERMAN CITIZENS OF THE JEWISH FAITH (Germany)

Was created to defend Jews against anti-Semitic libels in Germany. After 1933 it provided legal advice to German Jews. It was closed down by the Gestapo in 1938.

1893 December 12, - 1973 EDWARD G. ROBINSON (Emanuel Goldenberg) (USA)

Originally typecast as a gangster, he starred in over 150 films. Robinson was a linguist and broadcasted to Germany in German during WWII. He was an accomplished painter, and one of the foremost art collectors in the United States.

1894 DREYFUS AFFAIR (France) 

Began in France. Alfred Dreyfus, an Alsatian captain, was accused of passing military secrets to the Germans. Dreyfus was not religious or even acknowledged as a Jew, yet he became the pawn of anti-Semitic and anti-Republic forces. The entire country became divided between Dreyfusards and anti-Dreyfusards. The subsequent trial and its anti-Semitic overtones served as an impetus for many Jews (i.e. Herzl) to become aware of their own Jewishness.

1894 - 1943 HAYYIM SOUTINE (Russia-France)

Artist known for his passionate and often disturbing use of color and form. Soutine was befriended by Modigliani who introduced him to art dealers. At the outbreak of the war, he refused to leave France and died of ulcers brought on by his constantly having to move and remain in hiding.

1894 - 1917 NICHOLAS II (Russia) 

Last of the Russian Czars. Nicholas was extremely anti-semitic. He continued Alexander III's policies against the Jews and carried them one step further by commissioning Sergei Nilus, a monk, to write something which would arouse hatred of the Jews. The result of this was the infamous Protocols of the Elders of Zion (see 1905). A weak ruler, he was influenced by everyone around him: Mescherski (editor of a Slavophilist newspaper), Pobednostav and especially his wife, Princess Alix (Alexandra Fedorovna.)

1894 February 14, - 1974 JACK BENNY (Benjamin Kubelsky) (USA) 

Like many comedians of his era, he began in vaudeville and became known for using his violin as a prop. In 1932, he began his radio show, The Jack Benny Program and in 1950, made the successful transition into television winning two Emmy awards. Benny was famous for his alter-ego personality: never aging beyond 39, a tightwad persona, and inept violin playing (he was actually generous in real life and an exceptional violinist). Trademarks of his comic routine was when he paused, resting his chin on his hand, and uttered the word "Well!" or telling his audience in an aside, "Now cut that out!"

1894 February 28, - 1964 BEN HECHT (USA) 

Novelist, playwright, and screen writer. He authored 35 books and many screenplays. Although some of his earlier works that dealt with Jewish themes were not overly sympathetic (A Jew in Love), he changed with the rise of Nazism (A Guide for the Bedevilled) and became involved in Jewish activism. During the 1940's, he staged two pageants, Remember Us and A Flag Is Born, and became active in the Irgun Zvai Leumi. Due to his political activities in Eretz Israel his credits were removed from all films shown in England for a number of years. An illegal immigrant ship was namedBen Hecht in his honor. Hecht wrote his controversial Perfidy about the Kastner trial and attacked Ben Gurion and the Zionist establishment for their conduct during the war. His best selling biography is called A Child of the Century. Hecht worked on 150 films including Monkey Business, Wuthering Heights, and Gone with the Wind as well as the successful play The Front Page.

1894 June 3, - 1951 ARTHUR SZYK (Poland-USA) 

A war cartoonist, he was also famous for his traditional and modern Jewish and secular characters using a technique of miniaturization. He became associated with Jabotinsky's Revisionists and the Irgun underground organization.

1895 BOSTON (USA)

Federation of Jewish Charities was organized. It was the first organization to combine five separate groups for the purpose of common fund raising.

1895 - 1986 (13 Adar 5746) MOSES FEINSTEIN (Russia-USA) 

Rabbi, halachist and leader of American Orthodox Jewry. Born in Uzda, Belarus, he was the Rabbi of Luban until he left for the United States in 1937. He was head of the Mesivta (Yeshiva) Tiferes Yerushalayim in New York. Rabbi Feinstein became the world-renowned leader in the applications of Halacha to modern technology and current issues. His responsa Igrot Moshe are accepted as the final word by most of the Orthodox Ashkenazi community.

1895 - 1982 NAHUM GOLDMANN (Lithuania-Germany-USA)

Jewish and Zionist leader. Goldmann was very involved early on in Zionist activities. After World War II he choose not to live in Israel, a move for which he was much criticized. Despite his personal separation of Zionism from living in Israel, he served in senior positions in the World Zionist Organization. Goldmann was a key player in the reparation agreements between Germany and Israel. He was active in the World Jewish Congress serving as its president until 1977. He was also was instrumental in the publication of the Encyclopedia Judaica.

1895 January 5, DREYFUS AFFAIR (France) 

Dreyfus was tried and found guilt of treason. He was publicly degraded and sent to Devil's Island. Later on evidence was produced which proved that Major Esterhazy and Colonel Henry, Dreyfus' chief accusers, had forged the evidence, yet a new trial was not begun until 1899.

1896 JEWISH DAILY FORWARD (USA)

A Yiddish newspaper was established by Abraham Cahan. The paper soon emerged as the leading labor daily in New York.

1896 NOVARDOK (Belarus)

Rabbi Joseph Hurwitz established a yeshiva devoted to Kabbalah, asceticism and the training of teachers.

1896 - 1981 DAVID WECHSLER (USA) 

Psychologist. Wechsler served as Chief Psychologist at Bellevue hospital in New York and produced a standard intelligence test which is named after him. His tests tracks performance by age and helps diagnose brain abnormalities.

1896 - 1989 SALO BARON (Austria-USA) 

Historian and Scholar. Baron received doctorates in law, philosophy, and political science as well as rabbinical ordination. Although a prolific author, he is chiefly famed for his 17 volume A Social and Religious History of the Jews which relates to social history rather then concentrating on personalities.

1896 - 1973 SAMUEL IRVING ROSENMAN (USA)

Jurist and presidential advisor. Rosenman began his liberal politics helping Roosevelt when he was governor of New York. He continued in this role throughout Roosevelt's presidential terms in office. Rosenman is credited with coining the slogan, the New Deal and the term "the Brain Trust" He was especially helpful to Weizmann bringing him the information that Truman would recognize the Jewish state as long as partition was still accepted by the UN.

1896 January 20, - 1996 GEORGE BURNS (Nathan Birnbaum) (USA) 

Comedian and centenarian. Burns also began his career singing at the age of seven, although he did it on his own at street corners. In 1923, he began his life long partnership in entertainment with Gracie Allen who became his wife. Their radio program ran from 1932 -1949 and after which they moved into television. Burns won an Academy Award in 1975 for his appearance in The Sunshine Boys.

1896 February 14, HERZL (Vienna, Austria) 

Published Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State). This was basically a revision of his Address to the Rothschilds. In it Herzl envisioned a Jewish state as the only solution to the "Jewish Question". This could be attained in two stages, firstly the establishment of a political base and then mass aliyah (immigration). Many Western European Jews rejected his thesis, but it had the effect of pushing him into the spotlight and thereafter he was regarded the leader of the Zionist movement.

1896 March 15, HEBREW UNION VETERANS ORGANIZATION

The first veteran's organization in America was founded. It later became the Jewish War Veterans of the United States of America.

1896 April 6, THE FIRST MODERN OLYMPIAD OPENS (Athens)

Among the 6 Jews who won medals (8 gold), were two cousins on the German gymnastics team, Alfred and Gustav (Felix) Flatow. Alfred won three gold medals Gustav two. During WWW II they fled to the Netherlands. They were eventually deported to Theresienstadt where they both died, Gustav of starvation..

1896 April 15, KAISER WILHELM II APPROACHED REGARDING THE ZIONIST IDEA

William Hechler, the Anglican minister who befriended Herzl, met with his friend the Grand Duke Frederick I of Baden, ( the Kaisers’ uncle) and the Kaiser himself. He broached the idea of restoration of the Jews to their historic homeland. This led to a meeting between Herzl, the grand duke and Hechler on April 23, which in turn led to the later historic meetings between Herzl and the Kaiser.

1897 POLAND

Roman Dmowski, Jan Poplawski, and Sigismund Balicki founded the Endeks (National Democrats) which vowed to refuse Jews citizenship and expel them. They planned to have a "national state, not a state of nationals".

1897 PRAGUE (Bohemia)

After a decade of developing anti-Semitism, anti-Jewish riots broke out.

1897 VIENNA (Austria)

Franz Joseph confirmed the election of Karl Lueger as Mayor of Vienna (after refusing to do so three times). Lueger's party, the anti-Semitic Christian Social Party, was the first to come to power using anti-Semitism as a platform.

1897 - 1944 LOUIS "LEPKE" BUCHALTER (USA) 

Crime boss. Though quiet, Lepke was known for his violence. He ruled over an army of gangsters who controlled unions and the extortion rackets. Lepke was one of the founders of the National Crime Syndicate and was in charge of the enforcement branch which became known as "Murder Inc." In 1944 he was executed in Sing Sing Prison for killing a truck driver.

1897 - 1972 WALTER WINCHELL (USA) 

Columnist and commentator, Winchell is considered one of the architects of modern journalism. He was famous for his sensational disclosures for which he became a byword. Two thirds of American radio listeners and weekly readers (estimated at 35 million people) followed his often harsh commentaries about American political and social life. Winchell was one of the first to warn about the rise of the Nazis in Germany.

1897 March 20, YESHIVA RABBI ISAAC ELHANAN (New York, USA)

Was opened as an Orthodox rabbinical seminary. It later expanded into Yeshiva University, with both Jewish and secular studies, a medical school (Einstein), and a graduate school (Ferkauf).

1897 June 4, DIE WELT (The World) (Vienna, Austria)

First publication of the Zionist weekly founded by Theodore Herzl. Die Welt ran until 1914 and was the official publication of the World Zionist Organization. The paper dealt with Zionist ideas and events as well as anti- Semitism. Among its editors were Martin Buber and Nahum Sokolow.

1897 August 29, FIRST ZIONIST CONGRESS (Basel, Switzerland) 

Was convened by Theodore Herzl and Max Nordau. It was represented by a hundred and ninety-seven delegates. Herzl put forth his Basel Program, whose aim was "the establishment of a Jewish Homeland in Eretz Israel secured by public law". The congress endorsed the founding of the Zionist Organization later known as the World Zionist Organization, along with other permanent institutions. It also endorsed the Zionist congress as a national assembly representing the entire Jewish people. The congress transformed the Zionist movement into an official political movement.

1897 October 7, FIRST CONFERENCE OF THE BUND (Jewish Workers Union) (Vilna,Lithuania) 

It was the first Jewish Socialist party in Eastern Europe. At first decidedly anti-Zionist and pro-Yiddishist, it was organized as a union of Russian Jewish socialist groups. The Bund exerted a great influence on Jews in Europe and America.

1897 December 2, L'OSSERVATORE ROMANO

In an article discussing the Dreyfus Affair, comments that “The Jewish race, the deicide people… bearing with it everywhere the pestiferous breath of treason.... And so, too, in the Dreyfus case...it is hardly surprising if we again find the Jew in the front ranks, or if we find that the betrayal of one's country has been Jewishly conspired and Jewishly executed.”

1898 CUBA

Jews were granted the previously forbidden right to build synagogues and worship publicly.

1898 RISHON LEZION (Eretz Israel)

The first Hebrew speaking kindergarten opened.

1898 - 1995 ALFRED EISENSTAEDT (Germany-USA) 

Has been called the "father of photojournalism". Starting in Berlin in 1929 he produced candid but incisive documentary photographs and portraits. In 1936, he became one of the original staff photographers of Life Magazine.

1898 - 1936 GEORGE GERSHWIN (Brooklyn, USA) 

Considered by some to be the greatest Twentieth Century composer. He studied under Rubin, the composer of Hiawatha, and Gettysburg Requiem, and had a powerful influence on American music. His immortal Rhapsody in Blue, a classical jazz piece, was performed by Paul Whitman in 1924. Other great works include Porgy and Bess and An American in Paris.

1898 - 1978 GOLDA MEIR (MEYERSON) (Russia-USA-Eretz Israel) 

Fourth Prime Minister of Israel. Born in Russia, her earliest memories were of the pogroms. Her family moved to Milwaukee and in 1921 she moved from there to Israel and worked at various jobs on a kibbutz and in the Histadrut. She became Ambassador to Russia in 1948 and Foreign Minister in 1956. In 1970, after the death of Levi Eshkol, she was appointed Prime Minister and served until after the Yom Kippur War when, accused of unpreparedness, she resigned.

1898 - 1988 ISADORE RABI (USA) 

Physicist and Nobel Prize winner. Rabi was a pioneer in the fields of nuclear physics and quantum mechanics. He served in the advisory committee of the Atomic Energy Commission and helped create the European Center for Nuclear Research.

1898 - 1948 SERGEI EISENSTEIN (Russia) 

Russian film director. An architect by training, he joined the Russian Revolution. His first film was in 1924 Strike but it was his next film which propelled him into film history with The Battleship Potemkin. He was constantly having to fight Soviet politics, often having parts of his films re-edited (October), or even withheld (Ivan the Terrible) if it did not meet Stalin's approval. His classic films included The General Line, Alexander Nevsky and Ivan the Terrible.

1898 January 13, EMILE ZOLA (France) 

Acting on behalf of Dreyfus, he issued his famous "J'Accuse" letter in Clemenceau's paper L'Aurore condemning the French establishment in the Dreyfus Affair.

1898 April, SECOND BUNDIST CONFERENCE ( Kovno)

The Russian government arrested 70 participants. Many were exiled.

1898 April 24, SPANISH AMERICAN WAR BEGAN (USA) 

Fifteen Jews serving on the battleship the USS Maine were killed when it sank. Five thousand Jews served in the American Army, a ratio of 20% more than the general population including 30 army and 20 naval officers. The first person of Colonel Roosevelt's Rough Riders to reach the top of San Juan Hill was also a Jew - Irving Peixotto and the first to be killed was Jacob Wilbusky.

1898 June 8, UNION OF ORTHODOX JEWISH CONGREGATIONS OF AMERICA (U.O.J.C.A.)

Was established. The OU, as it became known, is the largest organization of Orthodox synagogues in the U.S.A. Today it is known for kashrut supervision on thousands of products in North America. It plays an important role in informal Jewish education through its student organization Yavneh and its National Conference of Synagogue Youth (NCSY) groups. It also sponsores the Association of Orthodox Jewish Scientists.

1898 October 1, KIEV (Ukraine) 

A decree by the Russian Czar (Nicholas II) explicitly barred Jews from living in major Russian cities. The action followed laws issued the previous May (the "May laws"), restricting Jewish settlement to the Pale of Settlement. In Kiev, alone, some 7000 Jews were forced to relocate.

1898 October 28, KAISER WILLIAM II (Germany) 

Visited Eretz Israel and met with Herzl. Herzl was disappointed by the lack of commitment on the part of the Kaiser. Much of this was due to the opposition to the Zionist enterprise of German liberal Jews, bankers, and his foreign minister, Bernhard von Buelow.

1899 - 1902 BOER WAR (South Africa)

A direct outcome of the war was the movement into the interior. Jewish settlements were established and strengthened in Durban, Johannesburg, and Pretoria. At the time there were approximately 25,000 Jews in South Africa.

1899 GAVRILA ROMANOVICH DERZHAVIN ( Russia)

The famed Russian poet (1743 – 1816) had been appointed by czar Paul I to investigate the famine in white Russia. In his report Opinion, he placed most of the blame on the "mercenary trades" of Jews.

1899 JEWISH COLONIAL TRUST (England-Eretz Israel) 

The financial arm of the World Zionist Organization was set up in England by Herzl. Its goal was to encourage Jewish settlement and projects which would "advance the Zionist cause". One of its subsidiaries, the Anglo-Palestine Company, later became Bank Leumi. Other investment helped create the Israel Electric Cooperation and Bank Hapoalim.

1899 - 1942 LILLI HENOCH (Germany)

Major women’s sports figure. Henoch was an all around athlete competing in track and field. She set four world records and won 10 national championships. Unfortunately she never was able to participate in the Olympics; in 1924 Germany was banned and in 1936 the Germans refused to allow her to compete. She and her mother were deported to Riga where they were murdered in September 1942.

1899 - 1966 MOSHE KOUSSEVITZKY (Kusevitsky) (Lithuania - USA)

Hazzan. Koussevitzky became the cantor in the Great Synagogue of Vilna in 1924. After an argument in 1927 between Sirota and the Board regarding his frequent concerts, Koussevitzky was appointed in his place at the Great Synagogue ("Tlomackie Shul") in Warsaw. During WWII he found refuge in Russia where he even performed in the Russian Opera. He immigrated to the United States after the war. He was considered by many to rival Yossele Rosenblatt for the title of the greatest cantor of all times.

1899 April 1, HILSNER AFFAIR (Polna,Bohemia) 

A young seamstress was found murdered in a forest, her throat cut. Leopold Hilsner, a 23 year old semi illiterate tramp, was seen near the site and accused of the murder despite the lack of incriminating evidence. It soon developed into a ritual murder accusation and Hislner was sentenced to death. Through the efforts of Tomas Masaryk (later the first President of Czechoslovakia) an appeal was made to the Supreme Court. Masaryk also published a pamphlet against ritual murder accusations. Hilsner was again sentenced to death but it was commuted to life imprisonment. He was pardoned by Karl (Charles)I of Austria on March 24, 1918.

1899 September 9, DREYFUS' SECOND TRIAL (France) 

Dreyfus was again convicted of treason but due to "extenuating circumstances" he was sentenced to "only" five more years of imprisonment. On the advice of his lawyer, Waldeck-Rousseau, Dreyfus withdrew his appeal and was granted a "pardon" by the president of the republic.

1900 - 1990 AARON COPLAND (USA) 

Composer and conductor. He used American themes and jazz as the starting point for much of his music, including his famous Appalachian Spring, Billy the Kid, and Rodeo.

1900 - 1987 PHILIP LEVINE (Russia-USA)

Immunohematologist. Levine did extensive work on human blood groups and blood transfusion, discovering many blood groups including the Rh factors.

1900 January 1, (1 Nissan 1900 ) - May 5, (5 Tishrei 1900 )

1900 March 15, KONITZ (Germany)

A blood libel occurred after the death of a local student. Wolf Israelski was accused and arrested, while Count Plucker promoted riots against the Jews. After Israelski was proven innocent, two others, Moritz Lewy and Rosenthal, were arrested on the same charge. Rosenthal and Lewy were acquitted, but Lewy was sentenced to four years for denying he knew the victim. All the evidence was based on the testimony of a petty thief, Masloff, who later received only one year for perjury.

1900 July 31, INQUISITION DECIDES VATICAN CAN'T DECLARE JEWS INNOCENT OF BLOOD RITUALS

After debating the issue of Jewish innocence of blood libels the Holy Office of the Inquisition ruled that Vatican cannot issue any declaration that the Jews are innocent. Pope Leo XIII approved the conclusion. "Although nothing was found either in the Holy Office or at the Secretariat of State, where careful research was undertaken, bearing on this accusation ... ritual murder is a historical certainty....

1901 - 1905 JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA (USA)

Was produced by Dr. Isadore Singer in Philadelphia.

1901 RELIEF SOCIETY FOR GERMAN JEWS (Hilsvereinder Deutschen Juden) (Germany)

Was founded. It was designed to help Eastern European Jews immigrate to Germany.

1901 February 2, - 1987 JASCHA HEIFETZ (Lithuania-USA) 

Violinist. He started lessons at age three and debuted at age seven. He is considered by many to be the greatest violinist of the century. Heifetz arranged and transcribed more than one hundred classical and modern compositions.

1901 May 17, HERZL (Ottoman Empire) 

Met with the Sultan of Turkey to discuss the establishment of a Jewish state and the obtaining of a charter. Herzl failed in both attempts.

1901 September 28, - 1990 WILLIAM SAMUEL PALEY (USA)

Radio and television pioneer. Paley began his career working in his father's cigar manufacturing plant. In 1920, he bought a failing chain of radio stations and turned it into the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS). Paley was also one of the first to see the possibilities of television right after WWII.

1901 December 30, (19 Tevet 5662) JEWISH NATIONAL FUND (Keren Kayemet L'Yisrael) (Switzerland-Eretz Israel) 

Was created at the 5th Zionist Congress in Basel. Conceived of by Dr. H. Schapira, it was dedicated to purchasing and reclaiming land in order to create a national homeland. The land was bought and leased to settlers for a period of forty-nine years. This was in accordance with Jewish law in which land is leased only until Jubilee (forty-nine years) and then returned to its original owner. Today the JNF is actively involved in afforestation, water reserves, and the environment, as well as education.

1902 ENGLAND

Enacted anti-alien legislation.

1902 - 1914 ERETZ ISRAEL

Twenty-nine settlements were started by the World Zionist Organization.

1902 HEBREW IMMIGRANT AID SOCIETY (USA)

Was organized in the United States by Russian Jews to serve as counselors, interpreters, attorneys, and an employment service, as well as to help them find their relatives.

1902 - 1979 RICHARD ROGERS (USA)

Musical Composer. Rogers first teemed up as a student with Lorenz Hart with whom he wrote many musicals including Babes in Arms and Pal Joey. After Hart's death Rogers became partners with Oscar Hammerstein II (1895-1960). Their collaborations included Oklahoma, South Pacific, The King and I, and The Sound of Music.

1902 VYACHESLAV VON PLEHVE (Russia)

A German bureaucrat who became the Russian Minister of Interior. During that same year he suppressed a peasant's revolt.

1902 LILY MONTAGU (1873-1963) (England) 

Daughter of Samuel Montagu, Lord Swaythling (of the United Synagogue movement), she joined Claude Joseph Montefiore (a great-nephew of Sir Moses Montefiore) to develop the first Liberal Synagogue in London. At the age of 20 she founded the West Central Girls' Club (West Central Jewish Day Settlement) for working girls which she continued to run all of her life.

1902 - 1994 (3 Tamuz 5754) MENACHEM MENDEL SCHNEERSOHN (Russia-USA) 

Rabbi and Hasidic leader of the Habad - Lubavitch movement. Although he was not a direct descendent, he was chosen by Rabbi Jacob Joseph Schneersohn, his father-in-law, as his designated successor. After leaving Russia, Schneersohn pursued a degree at the Sorbonne in philosophy and electrical engineering. He arrived in the USA in 1941 and worked for a few years as an electrical engineer for the U.S. Navy. After the war Schneersohn headed the Merkos L'Inyonei Chinuch - the educational arm of the Habad movement. With his father-in-law's death in 1950 he was officially appointed as his successor. Under the direction of "the Rebbe" (as he was popularly known), Habad became a world-wide movement that sent its emissaries to remote corners of the world. Having no heirs, Habad was left without a spiritual leader after his passing.

1902 - 1972 MORRIS "MOE" BERG (USA) 

Baseball player and spy. Berg, a major league catcher for several years, had a degree from both Princeton and the Columbia Law School. Before World War II he was asked by the U.S. government to take on a number of spy missions in Europe. He spoke 12 languages and served in the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), the precursor to the CIA.

1902 March 5, MIZRACHI MOVEMENT (Vilna,Lithuania) 

Was set up by Rabbi Isaac Jacob Reines as a religious Zionist organization based on the Basel Program and commitment to the Torah. Mizrachi (the acronym of Merkaz Ruchani (Spiritual Center)) is both an ideological and an educational movement. Its slogan "Eretz Israel for the people of Israel according to the Torah of Israel" expressed the idea that the Torah is the spiritual heart of Zionism. There were bitter debates regarding the inclusion of cultural activities in addition to practical political Zionism. Within a year over 200 branches were established in Russia, and within two years the Mizrachi World Organization was established. The Mizrachi workers movement "Hapo'el Hamizrachi" tried to organize and unify the early religious pioneers. Mizrachi has a youth movement - Bnei Akiva - and two women's organizations - Emunah and AMIT.

1902 October 30, HERZL 

Published a romantic utopian novel Altneuland (Old-New Land). In it, Herzl portrayed his vision of the Jewish state.

1903 - 1907 RUSSIA

During these 4 years, 500,000 Jews fled Russia, with 90% of them going to the United States.

1903 - 1976 SYDNEY FRANKLIN (Frumkin) (USA-Mexico-Spain)

Bullfighter, born in Brooklyn, New York. He studied in Mexico and retired after over five thousand bullfights in Mexico and Spain. Franklin was a close friend of Ernest Hemingway and served as a foreign correspondent during the Spanish Civil War. He later became a sports writer and bullfight commentator and wrote his biography Bullfighter from Brooklyn.

1903 - 1952 JAKOB ROSENFELD aka General Luo (Lemberg - Tel Aviv)

Physician and health minister in the Communist army's provisional government. Rosenfeld a Viennese doctor, fled Germany in 1939, being released after spending time in Dachau and Buchenwald. He found passage to china , where he joined the Chinese communists as a field doctor. He remained as part of the People's Liberation Army until 1949 when he returned to Europe to search for relatives. Unable to get a visa to return to china, he immigrated to Israel.

1903 - 1993 JOSEPH DOV SOLOVEITCHIK, "the Rav" (Poland-USA)

Rabbi, philosopher and scholar. Beginning as a young talmudic scholar, he received his doctorate in philosophy at the University of Berlin. He immigrated to the USA with his wife Tonya who had a doctorate in education. Soloveitchik founded the first Jewish day school in New England and in 1941 succeeded his father as professor of Talmud at Yeshiva University. He was offered but declined to become the Chief Rabbi in Israel (1959). Though reluctant at first to publish his writings, he had a profound affect on Orthodox Jewry. Among his books and essays are Ish ha-Halacha (The man of Halacha), The Lonely Man of Faith, Al ha-Teshuvah (On Repentance), and Be-Sod ha-Yachad (Aloneness and Togetherness).

1903 - 1944 ORDE CHARLES WINGATE, (Hayedid "The Friend")

An officer in the British army was posted to Eretz Israel after the beginning of the 1936 riots as a captain in British intelligence. He quickly became enamored with the Zionist cause and often chided the "establishment" for not being militant enough. He worked with the Haganah, to train Special Night Squads (S.N.S.), a guerrilla unit he formed, that would specialize in counter terror attacks. Wingate earned the ire of the British after testifying before the Woodhead Commission. In 1939, he was transferred to Ethiopia and then India, probably due to his outspoken pro-Zionist beliefs. He died in March 1944 in a plane crash. The Wingate Institute and Yemin Orde (a children's village) are named after him.

1903 April 19, KISHINEV (Bessarabia)

Riots broke out after a Christian child, Michael Ribalenko, was found murdered (Feb. 16). Although it was clear that the boy had been killed by a relative, the government chose to call it a ritual murder plot by the Jews. The mobs were incited by Pavolachi Krusheven, the editor of the anti-Semitic newspaper Bessarabetz, and the vice governor, Ustrugov. Vyacheslav Von Plehve, the Minister of Interior, supposedly gave orders not to stop the rioters. During three days of rioting, forty-seven Jews were killed, ninety-two severely wounded, five hundred slightly wounded and over seven hundred houses were destroyed. Despite a world-wide outcry, only two men were sentenced to seven and five years and twenty-two were sentenced for one or two years. This pogrom was instrumental in convincing tens of thousands of Russian Jews to leave Russia for the West and for Eretz Israel. The child's real murderer was later found.

1903 May, CHAIM NACHMAN BIALIK 

Wrote the poem In the City of Slaughter. In this poem Bialik chastised the Jews for not defending themselves in the massacre of Kishinev. Herzl was also affected by Kishinev and he decided to visit Russia and give consideration to the Uganda Plan. In America, groundwork was laid for the American Jewish Committee and American Jewry was cast into international prominence.

1903 July, - August, SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC CONGRESS (London)

Rise of Lenin's group known as the Iskra (The Spark), named after their newspaper published in Switzerland. Vladimir Lenin headed the Bolsheviks (majority) while George Plekhanov headed the Mensheviks (Minority). Although Lenin was not to have a majority until 1917, he refused to relinquish the name. The Mensheviks included many Jews including Julius Martov, Raphael Abramowitz(Rein), and Fyodor Ilyich Dan (Gurvich). The two groups argued over organization and tactics with the Menshevicks believing it best to cooperate with liberals and wished to have a more "open" party. In general there were more Jews in the Mensheviks which better reflected Jewish liberalism and intellectuality. The congress refused to allow the Jewish delegates to participate in the revolutionary work while remaining an independent ethnic group which lead to the Bund seceding from the Social Democratic Party.

1903 August 23 - 28, SIXTH ZIONIST CONGRESS (Basle, Switzerland) 

Herzl proposed using territory offered by Britain, specifically Uganda, as a temporary shelter for Jews fleeing Eastern Europe and Russia. The Russian delegates, after a riotous debate, walked out and refused to return for the next congress unless the plan was dropped.

1903 August 26, PROTOCOLS OF THE ELDERS OF ZION (Russia) 

An abbreviated version of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion appeared in the Russian language paper Znamia (The Banner). The full version appeared two years later.

1903 September 1, GOMEL/HOMEL (Russia)

Von Plehve, the Russian Minister of the Interior who helped promote the Kishinev pogroms, instigated another pogrom. In spite of a vigorous defense, twelve Jews were killed and two hundred and fifty homes were destroyed. Thirty-six of the defenders were prosecuted, together with the perpetrators of the pogrom.

1903 October 22, LENIN AND THE JEWISH QUESTION (Russia)

In an article in the Journal Iskra (The Spark) he wrote "The Jewish question can be posed in this way only: assimilation or ghetto... The idea of a Jewish nationality contradicts the interests of the Jewish proletariat."

1904 - 1986 JACOB JAVITS (USA) 

U.S. Senator. Beginning in the garment industry, he also worked as a janitor and a salesman until he was able to receive his law degree. During the Second World War, he attained the rank of Lieutenant Colonel. Directly after the war Javits was elected to congress for eight years, and in 1956 he was elected to the senate. Javits served for 24 years and was one of the most respected senators of his day.

1904 - 1905 RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR

The Russian government accused the Jews of helping the Japanese and starting the war to help their "Kinsmen by race". Thirty thousand Jewish soldiers and 3000 Jewish doctors fought for the Russians. Two "orders of the day" recognized Jewish heroism; One on November 29 honoring Joseph Trumpeldor the other on July 25 1905 honoring Lazar Lichmaker both of whom coincidently fought without an arm

1904 - 1914 SECOND ALIYAH (Eretz Isreal)

With the fresh outbreak of mass pogroms in Eastern Europe, a second wave of immigration to Eretz Israel began. Unlike the First Aliyah, which believed in private agricultural enterprise, these formed the basis for the communal life and the foundation of the Kibbutz and Moshav movements. Approximately 35,000 new immigrants arrived bringing the population to about 90,000 before the outbreak of WWI. At the same time (between 1881 and 1914) 2.5 million Jews emigrated from Eastern Europe.

1904 January 25, HERZL MEETS POPE PIUS X 

And tried to convince him to support the vision of Zionism without any success. The pope totally rejected the idea that Jerusalem will be in Jewish hands .

1904 April 22, - 1967 ROBERT OPPENHEIMER(USA)

Physicist and educator. Oppenheimer became director of the atom bomb project known as the Manhattan Project in 1943.

1904 July 14, - 1991 ISAAC BASHEVIS SINGER ( Poland-USA) 

Yiddish novelist and journalist brother of I.J. Singer. Upon his immigration to the USA in 1935 he became a writer for the Forward. His first serial, The Family Moskat, gave him recognition as a respected writer. His other novels include The Magician of Lublin and The Slave. His Gimple the Fool and Other Stories and The Spinoza of Market Street showed his ability to write short stories as well. Singer won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1978, the first prize ever awarded for Yiddish Literature.

1904 July 15, VYACHESLAV VON PLEHVE (Russia) 

The Russian Minister of Interior, was assassinated. Von Plehve was responsible for the Kishinev massacres in which forty-seven Jews were killed, ninety-two severely wounded or crippled, and five hundred slightly wounded. His assassin was a member of the socialist revolutionary movement which had also suffered because of his policies. Czar Nicholas was frightened into making a few concessions. Unfortunately, he did not make enough to meet public demand.

1904 August, HEHALUTZ (HeChalutz) (Pioneer movement)

A loosely formed movement that received its initial push from Menahem Ussishkin who called on Jewish youth to come settle in Eretz Israel. The movement developed at different times in different countries and included various Zionist youth movements. Joseph Trumpeldor joined the Russian movement in 1918. A year later "The 105" group (named for the 105 members) arrived from Poland. By the beginning of World War II they had a combined membership of around 100,000 people.

1905 ALIENS IMMIGRATION ACT (England)

Slowed the number of Jews allowed to immigrate.

1905 - 1983 ARTHUR KOESTLER (Hungary-USA)

Author and journalist. Koestler studied engineering and joined the Zionist movement, even working for a short time for the Revisionist party. His book, Thieves of the Night, documents the Arab-Jewish conflict, while Promise and Fulfillment: Palestine, 1917-49 surveys the era of the Mandate and the creation of the State. Koestler flirted with communism but left the party after Stalin's purges and wrote probably his most famous work, Darkness at Noon.

1905 - 1982 AYN RAND (USA) 

Russian-American novelist and philosopher. She is remembered best for her novels The Fountainhead and Atlas Shrugged. Rand believed in the basis of action being rational self-interest and that it is one's moral responsibility to find self-fulfillment, and one's most worthy activity is productive achievement.

1905 ELIEZER LIPA JOFFE (1882-1944) (Russia-USA)

Founded Ha-Ikkar HaTzair ("Young Farmer") as well as the American branch of HeHalutz. They provided agricultural training with their goals to encourage its members to move to Eretz Israel. Joffe was also one of the originators of the idea of Moshav Ovdim "workers' cooperative settlement" This was different than a kibbutz in that families had their own farms and lived in their own houses although there were cooperative purchasing and marketing. The first such settlement was Nahalal (1921). Joffe also was founder of Tnuva, the agricultural marketing cooperative (1928).

1905 - 1944 ENZO SERENI 

Italian Zionist Pioneer who helped found Kibbutz Givat Brenner. During World War II he joined the British Army. He was instrumental in organizing parachute drops from the Yishuv to behind German lines. Sereni insisted that he be allowed to participate in those drops as well. He was dropped in the wrong area, captured by the Germans, and shot at Dachau. Kibbutz Netzer Sereni was named after him.

1905 LEO BAECK 

Published Essence of Judaism. In it Baeck, stressed the ethical and spiritual aspects of Judaism. (see 1873)

1905 MAXIM GORKY (1868-1936) (Russia) 

A Christian author and one of the founders of Soviet literature, he wrote letters of protest against the Black Hundreds in particular and anti-Semitism in general. Leo Tolstoy, one of Russia's greatest writers, joined him in defending the Jews.

1905 SERGI NILUS 

Published the Protocols of the Elders of Zion in his book Velikoe e Malom (The Great in the Small). The protocols deal with an alleged "secret" plot by the wise Jews to enslave the Christian world. In reality (as revealed by the London Times in 1921), the book was a plagiarized version of a lampoon on Napoleon by Maurice Jely published in 1864. Despite this, the book has been reprinted in almost every language. In Germany it was treated as the Gospel and British troops carried it into Eretz Israel in 1947. It was circulated in Poland (1966) and an Arab version appeared in 1967.

1905 YESHIVA OF LIDA (Lithuania)

Was established by Rabbi Jacob Reines ( see 1839), in which both secular and religious studies were taught. Reines had tried earlier (1882) to create a similar program, but had been stymied due to opposition within the orthodox community. The combination of WWI and his death in 1915, forced the close of the yeshiva . It has become the model for Yeshiva University, Bar Ilan University and most religious high schools all over the world.

1905 January 22, BLOODY SUNDAY (Russia)

Czarist guards fired into a crowd of workers, killing and wounding fifteen hundred of them. Bloody Sunday has symbolized the beginning of the end of the Russian monarchy's absolute power.

1905 April, THE SOCIETY FOR THE RIGHTS OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE ( Vilna, Lithuania)

Maxim Vinaver, a renowned lawyer and one of the founders of the "Constitutional Democratic Party" (Cadets), was elected its chairman. During its two years of existence, the Society organized Jewish participation in the first and second Dumas. They forcefully condemned government complicity in the pogroms of 1905. At their last convention in 1906, there was a heavy debate between Vladimir Jabotinsky (speaking for the Zionists) and Simon Dubnow who were in favor of a Jewish national group in the Duma and Vinaver who was opposed

1905 April 24 - 25, (Easter) BIALYSTOK AND ZHITOMIR (Russia)

Were attacked by the Black Hundreds (League of the Russian People), an unofficial pro-Czarist terrorist force. This time the Jews tried to defend themselves. In Zhitomir, police prevented Jewish self-defense organizations from protecting their property. After two days, 15 Jews and one non-Jewish student who had volunteered to defend the Jews, were killed. The Governor did nothing to stop the mobs until a number of Jews broke into his office and threatened him. The hostilities ceased almost immediately.

1905 July 30, BIALYSTOK (Russia)

During the anti-Jewish riots physicians were prevented from treating the Jewish victims.

1905 October 18 - 25, BLACKEST WEEK IN RUSSIAN JEWISH HISTORY

The Black Hundreds and other bands alleged that the Jews were responsible for their defeats in the Russian Japanese war and other Russian ills. In Odessa, the commander of the cadet school General Deryugin told his soldiers "Your on your way to massacre the Jews, You have my blessing for your work." In spite of many attempts at self defense, hundreds were killed, and thousands were wounded in more then fifty areas throughout Russia. In over 50 major pogroms over 40,000 homes and shops were destroyed, giving new impetus to immigration to both the West and Eretz Israel, with over 200,000 Jews leaving in one year.

1905 October 22, JAFFA (Eretz Israel) 

The first Hebrew high school was opened in Jaffa. Its goal was to provide its student with both a Jewish and secular education totally in Hebrew. It was later named after Herzl and called the Gymnasia Herzliya. It moved to Tel Aviv (1909).

1905 October 30, MANIFESTO OF NICHOLAS II (October Manifesto) (RUSSIA) 

Czar Nicholas II, after a nation-wide strike, issued a manifesto granting a constitution and a Duma (parliament) in which the Constitutional Democrats (Kadets) and Social Democrats would participate. The Social Democrats included both the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks. In addition it promised to grant civil liberties including freedom of religion and freedom of speech.Another party the Octobrist's was also created and which supported a constitutional monarchy.As a party, they were often anti-Semitic and wished to ban Jews from the military, and continue enforcing the Pale.

1905 November, ZIONIST LABOR PARTY (Poale Zion) (Russia)

Was formed in Minsk in an effort to combine Zionism and Socialism. Its first leader was Ber Borochov.

1906 SHAH MUZAFFAR-ED-DIN (Persia)

Convened the first Persian Parliament promising more rights (although not equality) for minorities. Unfortunately, the Shah died soon after and most of the reforms were never enacted.

1906 - 1963 CLIFFORD ODETS (USA) 

Playwright of the Depression. He used the theater to vent his protest against social conditions. His plays included Waiting for Lefty, Awake and Sing (a compassionate depiction of American Jewry), and Golden Boy.

1906 January 16, BEZALEL (Academy of Arts and Design) (Eretz Israel) 

Was founded in Jerusalem by Boris Schatz (1867-1932), painter and court sculptor to King Ferdinand of Bulgaria. The school was named after the biblical artisan Bezalel, son of Uri, who was one of the main architects of the Tabernacle. It has well over 1000 students and offers degrees in art, architecture, and design.

1906 February 3, AMERICAN JEWISH COMMITTEE 

Was formed. It was headed by Judge Mayer Sulzberger, a leader in the fight for liberal immigration laws. Its aims included the protection of civil and religious rights of Jews all over the world. Among its founders were Dr. Cyrus Adler, Louis Marshall and Jacob H. Schiff.

1906 March 9, RUSSIA

Founding of the Jewish Socialists Workers Party (a break off from Poale Zion) known as the Sejmists. It based itself on the ideology of Chaim Zhitlowsky and was comprised of liberal socialists and constitutionalists. The Sejmists were far less radical than the Bund in regard to Marxist philosophy. They believed in Jewish Autonomy in the Diaspora and considered themselves part of the international socialist movement. In 1909 it reunited with Poale Zion.

1906 July 4, BIALYSTOK (Russia)

Anti-Jewish riots. It was later revealed that the St. Petersburg police department paid for the leaflets inciting the people to riot.

1906 July 12, DREYFUS WAS ACQUITTED (France) 

On all counts by the Court of Appeals. After refusing compensation, he was promoted to Major. Dreyfus competently commanded an ammunition column in World War I. He died in 1935.

1906 July 21, CZAR NICHOLAS II (Russia) 

Dissolved the Duma.

1906 August, VON WASSERMAN (1866-1925) (Germany)

Instituted the Wasserman test for the diagnosis of syphilis.

1907 ERETZ ISRAEL

Ten years after the first Zionist Congress there were approximately 80,000 Jewish inhabitants in Eretz Israel: 45,000 in Jerusalem, 8000 in Jaffa, 8000 in Safed, 2000 in Haifa, 2000 in Tiberias, and 1000 in Hebron. In addition, there were 14,000 people living in over 30 villages and underdeveloped land.

1907 LENA HIMMELSTEIN (1881-1951) (USA)

A dress designer was asked by a customer to design a maternity dress so that she would not have to remain in seclusion during her pregnancy. The success of the dress opened an entire industry to development. Lena, known by first married name, Bryant, went on to establish well over 100 Lane Bryant stores in the United States.

1907 - 1982 PIERRE MENDES-FRANCE (France)

Lawyer and politician, he was descended from a well-known Sephardic family. He joined the Radical Socialist Party in 1927 and was elected to the National Assembly. He became Prime Minister in 1954, ending the war in Indo-China. He was replaced a year later and was soundly defeated by the Gaullists in 1968. Mendes was known as the "Roosevelt of France" for his "fireside chat" manner. He was a staunch supporter of Israel and the Zionist movement.

1907 THE FREE SYNAGOGUE (New York, USA)

Was founded by Rabbi Stephen Wise as a reaction to the refusal of his congregation in Oregon to allow him free rein on the pulpit. Wise was against set dues for members and believed that the synagogue should also be used to criticize social problems.

1907 ALBERT ABRAHAM MICHELSON (1852-1931) (USA)

Received the Nobel prize for physics. He was the first American scientist and the first American Jew to receive the prize.

1907 STOLYPIN (Russia) 

The new Minister of Interior, he convinced the Czar to establish a second Duma which had far less power. Soon afterwards Stolypin strengthened the anti-Semitic Union of the Russian People and the Black Hundreds.

1907 June 6, DROPSIE COLLEGE FOR HEBREW AND COGNITIVE LEARNING (USA) 

Was established in Philadelphia. Dr. Cyrus Adler was appointed its first president.

1907 September 29, BAR GIORA (Eretz Israel) 

A Palestinian Jewish self-defense organization was formed to protect the settlements in Sejera (the lower Galilee area) from raiders. Two years later it was reorganized and broadened into HaShomer (the Watchman) by Israel Shochat. HaShomer was eventually transformed into the Haganah. Despite opposition from local Jews and the Baron's overseers, they persevered with the idea of Jews taking responsibility for their own defense.

1908 ALFRED P. SHULTZ (USA)

Published Race or Mongrel, an anti-Semitic racist book.

1908 TURKEY

Granted Jews political rights.

1908 TURKISH REVOLUTION (Ottoman Empire)

The Young Turks disposed of Sultan Abdul Hamid "the Damned". The new government retained the Sultan's policies towards a Jewish Eretz Israel.

1908 January 7, PALESTINE LAND DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY 

Was established. Later known as the Israel Land Development Authority (ILDC), the authority was in charge of purchasing and cultivating land for the Jewish National Fund and for private individuals. Its first Chairman was Otto Warburg and its first director Arthur Ruppin. The company was instrumental in establishing settlements such as Nahalal, Tel Yosef, Ein Harod, and the first kibbutz, Degania. Many of its purchases were in the Sharon Plain, and the Hula valley. They also played a major role in developing Tel Aviv and the Hadar Carmel section of Haifa.

1909 - 1910 POLAND

A boycott of Jewish goods was organized under the guise of nationalism.

1909 SMOLENSKY DISTRICT (Russia)

A Jew hunt was organized (one of many) to find Jews living outside the Pale. Ten were found in the city and 74 more in the neighboring woods. All were forced back into the Pale.

1909 VICTOR BRENNER (1871-1924)(Lithuania-USA)

Medalist and sculptor, he engraved the Lincoln penny still used today.

1909 April 4, HASHOMER (Eretz Israel) 

The Association of Jewish watchmen was founded in order to protect Jewish settlements. Many of its members were recent arrivals from Russia who had organized self-defense organizations in Russia during the pogroms five years earlier. Its founders included Itzhak ben Zvi, Israel Giladi, Israel Shochat and Alexander Zeid. The Shomerim were excellent horsemen. spoke Arabic and wore a combination of Arab and Circassian garb. Within a few years they took over the defense of all Jewish villages. HaShomer was active until 1920 when it was absorbed into the Haganah.

1909 April 11, TEL AVIV (Eretz Israel) 

The first modern Jewish city, it was founded on the sand dunes north of Jaffa with the building of 60 houses. The actual name "Tel Aviv" was given only the next year (Hill of Spring) and was taken from a Babylonian city (Ezekiel 3:15) and used by Nahum Sokolow as the title for his translation of Herzl's book Altneuland.

1909 May 30, - 1986 BENNY (BENJAMIN DAVID) GOODMAN (USA) 

Clarinetist and band leader. Goodman grew up in the Chicago ghetto, one of twelve children of an immigrant tailor who had fled anti-Semitism in Russia. He took his first lessons on the clarinet in his local synagogue. Goodman's band took off on August 23, 1935 when he played compositions arranged by Fletcher Henderson giving birth to a new style of jazz music - "swing." Goodman became known as the "King of Swing" and was the first to include black and white musicians in the same band. Goodman was one of the most recorded artists in history playing both jazz and classical music.

1909 June 6, - 1997 SIR ISAIAH BERLIN (Latvia-England)

Liberal philosopher and political scientist. Berlin was the first Jewish Fellow of All Souls College and the first to be appointed president of the British Academy. Among his well known works are Karl Marx, The Hedgehog and the Fox, Two Concepts of Liberty, and The Life and Opinions of Moses Hess. Berlin was a strong supporter of Zionism and a friend of Chaim Weizmann. He received the Jerusalem Prize in 1978.

1909 December, DEGANIA (Eretz Israel) 

The first kibbutz or collective colony was founded in Eretz Israel. Aaron David Gordon (1856-1922), one of its founders, was considered to be the "Apostle" of the kibbutz movement. Each colony was independent and democratically governed. Membership was voluntary and all earnings and expenses were shared.

1920 DR. LATHROP STODDARD (USA)

Published The Rising Tide of Color, a racist book describing the "under men" and calling for the development of a pure race while at the same time pronouncing anyone not of "superior stock" an enemy. His book ran to fourteen editions, and a later book, The Revolt Against Civilization, was equally successful. In 1939 he traveled to Germany where he expressed admiration for their eugenics court.

1920 POLAND

Jozef Pilsudski, the Polish statesmen and later first marshal, aligned himself with Petlura and decided to attack Russia in the midst of the Russian Civil Wars. During this attack, which reached as far as Kiev, the armies assaulted the Jewish quarters in each town. Although Pilsudski himself was not considered anti-Semitic, he only acted to stop them after foreign pressure was applied. Approximately thirty thousand Jews were systematically killed before Allied pressure slowed them down. This linked the idea of Polish nationalism with pograms in the mind of the Jews.

1920 RED ARMY (Russia)

Founded by Leon Trotsky, pushed all counter-revolutionary forces out of Russia.

1920 TREATY OF TRIANON (Hungary)

Fifty-one percent of Hungary's Jews became citizens of Rumania and Czechoslovakia, yet remained loyal to Hungary. At the same time they were resented as aliens by their host countries. Many of the remaining Jews in dissected Hungary soon assimilated, yet despite this they were regarded as menaces and third class citizens.

1920 - 1922 GERMANY 

The International Jew, an anti-Semitic book, was translated into German and ran through sixteen editions. It was subsidized by Henry Ford.

1920 - 1927 HENRY FORD (USA) 

Published an assortment of anti-Semitic literature including: The International Jew, Jewish Activities in the United States and Jewish Influence in American Life. As the result of a libel action in 1927 he was forced to make a public retraction.

1920 - 1987 ZELDA TREGER NISANILEVICH (Poland- Eretz Israel)

Partisan. One of the most famous women partisans in Poland . She trained as a teacher and after the war broke out she joined the Halutz group in Vilna. She passed for a non Jew and was of invaluable help to the HaShomer Ha-Tzair cells around Vilna. She managed to break into the ghetto 18 times relaying messages and bringing weapons and medicine. Although she was captured four times she managed to escape each time. At the end of the war she joined the Nekama "revenge" group under Abba Kovner, and later moved to Eretz Israel where she once again worked as a kindergarten teacher.

1920 January, ENGLAND

The Jewish Peril, an English translation of the "Protocols", was published. During the same year it was also printed in Poland and France and reprinted in newspapers.

1920 January, GERMANY

Ripe for anti-Semitism after its defeat in World War I, the first translation of the Protocols was published. It was called The Secret of the Elders of Zion and was published by the Verband gegen die Ueberhebung des Judentums (League against Jewish Arrogance). Led by Ludwig Miller (von Hausen) AKA Gottfried zur Beek. They also published the periodical Auf Vorposten which blamed Germany's defeat on the Jews. The German Protocols was reprinted five times in 1920 alone.

1920 January 4, METULLA (Eretz Israel) 

Bedouin attacks on the north forced the French at a fort near Metulla to retreat. The 120 members of the settlement were forced to flee to Sidon, where they boarded a ship to Haifa.

1920 January 10, LEAGUE OF NATIONS 

Was established in an effort to promote cooperation between countries and hopefully prevent further wars. The League of Nations lasted until 1946, although it had little power during its last ten years. The league also dealt with issues regarding anti-Semitism in Germany, the use of the numerus clauses in Hungarian Universities, and the expulsion of Jewish refugees in Austria. On July 24, 1922, the council confirmed the Balfour Declaration and the British Mandate for Palestine.

1920 January 19, COMMISSION OF INQUIRY (USA)

Under Henry M. Morgenthau issued their report on the anti-Jewish riots in Poland. Morgenthau put much of the blame on Polish Jews stating that in order to "cure the evils of Poland... they must change their mode of life."

1920 February 24, NSDAP (National Socialist) Party (Germany)

The Nazi party endorsed its own platform which consisted of twenty-five points. Seven of these points concerned the Jews. As part of their program they insisted that Jews could never be citizens or a part of the German Volk (people). That same year the German National Peoples Party (DNVP) also came out "against the predominance of Jewry in government and public life".

1920 March 1, TEL HAI (Eretz Israel) 

A Jewish village in the Galilee was attacked by Arabs. Joseph Trumpeldor and seven men under his command were killed in the ensuing battle.

1920 March 21, PRESIDENT HARDING (USA) 

Pushed Congress to limit immigration. This had a direct effect on Jewish immigration prior to and during World War II.

1920 March 26, SHABELSKY-BORK (Germany) 

A supporter of the "Protocols", he tried to assassinate Pavel Milyukov (former leader of the Cadets, who fled Russia in 1918) at a meeting of Russian refugees. Instead, he killed Vladimir Nabokov and was sentenced to fourteen years in prison. After serving for a short time, he was released and befriended by Alfred Rosenberg, the "Nazi philosopher".

1920 April 4 - 5, JERUSALEM (Eretz Israel) 

Anti-Jewish riots. Five Jews were killed and two hundred and eleven wounded. Vladimir Jabotinsky and others were arrested for organizing a self-defense league.

1920 April 24, THE SUPREME COUNCIL OF THE PEACE CONFERENCE AT SAN REMO (Italy) 

Assigned the British government the Mandate over Palestine, directing her to establish a national home for the Jewish people as presented in the Balfour Declaration. As part of their mandate the British were instructed to recognize "the historical connection of the Jewish people with Palestine and to the grounds for reconstituting their national home in that country." In addition, Britain was to "facilitate Jewish immigration" and "close settlement by Jews on the land." The civil administration was established on July 1, 1920 with Sir Herbert Samuel as the first high commissioner.

1920 May, GENERALS KAFF AND LUTTWITZ (Germany)

Attempted a rightist coup which failed. Their prison sentences were extremely light and they resumed their activities soon after their release.

1920 May 20, HENRY FORD (USA) 

Ford's newspaper, Dearborn Independent, with a circulation of seven hundred thousand, "discussed" the Jewish problem.

1920 June 15, HAGANAH (Eretz Israel) 

Self-Defense Force was formed during a meeting of the Ahdut Avodah party. It was designed to take the place of the Ha-Shomer Ha-Tzair movement, and was dedicated to havlagah, or self-defense. The original idea had been proposed by Israel Shochat eight years earlier. With the onset of the British Mandate the Zionist leaders had thought there would not be a need for a self-defense organization. The Arab attacks earlier that year proved them wrong. Eliyahu Golomb was its first commander.

1920 July 1, SIR HERBERT SAMUEL (England-Eretz Israel) 

A British statesman, he was appointed High Commissioner of Eretz Israel. His first official act was to grant amnesty to political prisoners, including Jabotinsky. He governed the British Mandate for five years - not without confrontation with Zionist ideology. He was knighted in 1937 and took the title Viscount Samuel of Mt. Carmel and Toxteth. During the 1930's he fought to allow more German Jews to immigrate to England and became a supporter of the State of Israel after its formation.

1920 July 11, WIZO (Women's International Zionist Organization) 

Was founded in London. Rebecca Sieff was nominated as the first president of WIZO. Its activities include professional and vocational training for women, education of children and youth, shelters for battered women, as well as help for new immigrants. WIZO is recognized by the UN as a Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) It is also a member of the World Zionist Organization and of the World Jewish Congress.

1920 July 27, KEREN HAYESOD (Eretz Israel Foundation Fund) (England-Eretz Israel) 

Was created in London at the London Zionist Conference for education, absorption and the development of rural settlements in Eretz Israel. Chaim Weizmann was elected president of the World Zionist Organization.

1920 December 12, HISTADRUT HAOVDIM (General Labor Federation) (Eretz Israel) 

Was founded in Eretz Israel. Its founder, Berl Katznelson, was a disciple of Borochov. He combined various labor groups to form a federation. In reality the federation became one major union which was divided into trade sections. The Histadrut had its own workers' bank, Bank Hapoalim, as well as an Agricultural Audit Union, and a wholesale purchasing organization, Hamashbir Hamerkazi. Tnuva was its agricultural marketing cooperative, Hamashbir Hamerkazi, its wholesale consumer cooperative and department store, and Solel Boneh its contracting organization. It even had its own insurance company, Hassneh, and sick fund. The Histadrut was forced to make major reforms and cutbacks in the 1990's because of the changed economic climate and economy of the state of Israel.

1921 AUSTRIA

Expelled seventy-three thousand out of the hundred thousand Galician Jewish refugees. The remainder were either too sick or too old to leave.

1921 ITALY

Giovanni Pressiosi published an Italian version of the "Protocols".

1921 YEVSEKTSIA (USSR)

The Yiddish arm of the Communist Party was created as a government tool to control the Jews. It was disbanded in 1929.

1921 AGNES KELETI (Hungary - Israel)

Olympic gymnast. Keleti competed in the 1948, 1952, 1956 Olympics winning 10 medals. She began her career in 1936 but was forced to flee Hungary during the Holocaust. Her father was killed in Auschwitz. In 1956, while in Australia, she defected and moved to Israel where she worked for the Wingate Institute as a physical education instructor and coach for the Israeli gymnastics team. It was reported at age 81, Agnes was still turning cartwheels.

1921 POLAND

Central Yiddish School Organization (CYSHO) was established by the Bund and Poale Zion. It opposed Jewish religious life.

1921 ROBERT LAMBELIN (France)

Translated the "Protocols" directly from the Russian. It ran through sixteen editions in one year.

1921 THEODOR FRITSCH (Germany) (1852-1933) 

"The Nestor (The elder statesman) of German anti-Semitism", he produced his own version of "Protocols" which he claimed was translated from Hebrew. The first publication of his Hammer Publishing House was Antisemiten-Katechismus - a catalogue of Jewish misdeeds.Fritsch's who was a fervent believer in the supremacy of the Aryan race, tried (unsuccessfully at the time) to unite all the anti-Semitic political parties in Germany.

1921 - 1944 November 7, HANNAH SZENES (Senesh) (Eretz Israel-Hungary) 

Poet and freedom fighter. Born in Hungary, she immigrated to Eretz Israel in 1939 and joined kibbutz Sedot Yam. Her poem Halikha LeKesariya ("A Walk to Caesarea") is famous today as Eli Eli ( My God My God). In 1942 a call went out for volunteers for a special mission against Germany. She joined 32 other young Jews who were trained by the British to infiltrate behind enemy lines. While in Yugoslavia she wrote her famous poem wrote the poem Ashrei ha-Gafrur ("Blessed is the Match"). She was captured in June 1944 and executed November 7, 1944 . Six other parachutists lost their lives during their missions. Her diary and many of her poems were published after her tragic death. She was reburied in 1950 on Mt. Herzl in Jerusalem.

1921 February 23, ERETZ ISRAEL 

Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook and Rabbi Ya'akov Meir were elected the first two chief rabbis. (The Sephardic chief rabbi retained the title of Rishon le-Zion.)

1921 March, TREATY OF RIGA (Poland)

Poland's post-World War I borders were finally recognized. Poland received almost one-third of the Ukraine along with Galicia, Pozania, Pomerania, and parts of Silesia, bringing the Jewish population of Poland to between 11-15% according to conservative estimations.

1921 May 2, JAFFA (Eretz Israel) 

Arabs rioted, killing forty Jews and wounding two hundred others. The riots soon spread to Tel Aviv, Petah Tikva, Kfar Saba, Hadera, and Rehovot. Though casualties were "relatively" light, the British decided to immediately suspend Jewish immigration and appease the Arabs by "redefining" the borders of the Balfour Declaration.

1921 September 11, NAHALAL (Eretz Israel) 

The first moshav was established in the Jezreel Valley.

1922 HEBREW THEOLOGICAL COLLEGE (USA)

Was founded in Chicago with Saul Silver as president. Its goal was the training of Orthodox students for the rabbinate.

1922 JEWISH INSTITUTE OF RELIGION (USA)

Was founded by Stephen Wise in New York for the purpose of training rabbis without a "partisan stamp".

1922 LENIN (Russia)

Created the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

1922 SUPREME MOSLEM COUNCIL (Eretz Israel)

Was established in Eretz Israel under the jurisdiction of the British government. Theoretically, it was created to centralize religious affairs and institutions. In reality, it became an almost omnipotent power in the Arab world. The Husseini family was given control and Haj Amin el Husseini became the Mufti or ruler. As Mufti, he tried his best to engender strong anti-Zionist feeling in his fellow Arabs.

1922 HAYIM HELLER (1878-1960, 14 Nisan 5760) (Germany)

Established a new type of yeshiva in Berlin which combined traditional studies with Biblical and talmudic research (Bet ha-Midrash ha-Elyon). Among his students were Samuel Bialobocki and J. B. Soloveitchik.

1922 March 1, - 1995 YITZHAK RABIN (Israel)

Military leader and politician. Rabin began his long army career in the Palmach at its onset in 1940 and rose within 7 years to be its deputy commander. He commanded the Harel Brigade during the War of Independence and served in different positions in the army until becoming chief of staff at the beginning of 1964. After the victory of the Six Day War, he retired becoming Israel's ambassador to the United States. Rabin became prime minister after Golda Meir's resignation and served until March 1977 when he had to resign over a scandal regarding his wife's illegal bank account. Rabin once again became prime minister in 1992 and oversaw the Oslo Agreement with the Palestinian Authority. He was assassinated by Yigal Amir, a student on November 4, 1995.

1922 May 28, BNEI AKIVA (Eretz Israel) 

The "Sons of Akiva", the youth movement of Ha-Po'el ha-Mizrachi, was founded. The basis for the movement was the idea of Torah va-Avodah ("Torah and Labor"), religion and pioneering. The spiritual leader of the movement was Chief Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook. One of its goals was to train its members in agriculture and crafts leading Bnei Akiva to form its own kibbutzim within the structure of Kibbutz Hadati, the religious kibbutz movement.

1922 June, PRESIDENT OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY, A.L. LOWELL (USA)

During a commencement exercise he advocated the use of quotas against Jewish college applicants. Though he was forced to retract his statement, a precedent had been set and the quota system rapidly gained acceptance in American universities.

1922 June 18, CHURCHILL WHITE PAPER

Was accepted (with reservations) by the Zionist executive. Six white papers regarding the British Mandate were issued between 1922 and 1939. Each of these policy position papers took its name from the person responsible for its issue. In this one Churchill, the colonial secretary, reaffirmed the Balfour Declaration but stipulated the idea that "Palestine" as a whole would not be "converted into a Jewish National Home." Furthermore, all Jewish immigration should not exceed the "economic capacity of the country." The Palestine Arab congress totally rejected the paper.

1922 June 24, WALTER RATHENAU (Germany) 

The Jewish German foreign minister was assassinated by anti-Semitic nationalists who blamed Germany's defeat in World War I on the Jews.

1922 July 22, THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS COUNCIL 

Confirmed the Palestine Mandate, citing the Balfour Declaration in the preamble and recognizing "the historical connection of the Jewish people with Palestine".

1922 August, SHARON, CONNECTICUT (USA)

Chamber of Commerce urged land owners not to sell to Jews.

1922 September, HUNGARY

College enrollment for Jews was restricted. Hungary was the first nation to openly disregard the Minorities Rights Treaty adopted at the Paris Peace Conference which dealt with the basic civil, political, and religious rights of minorities.

1922 September 21, USA 

The United States Congress and President Harding approved the Balfour Declaration.

1922 October, ERETZ ISRAEL

Population reached eighty-four thousand.

1922 October 30, BENITO MUSSOLINI (Italy) 

Became premier of Italy. Though at first pro-Zionist and on good terms with the Jewish population, he was later pushed by Hitler to adopt anti-Semitic policies.

1922 November 11, MUNICH PUTSCH (Germany) 

General Ludendorff and an Austrian corporal named Adolph Hitler (1889-1945) were arrested after a short parade proclaiming the overthrow of the government. Hitler was sent to Landsburg prison where he wrote Mein Kampf (My Battle), a vicious harangue against democracy, communism, the Versaille diktat and, of course, the Jews as the root of all evil. The book became the "Bible" of the Nazis, and was published in almost every major country. Hitler himself soon rose (1925) to become leader of the Nazi Party and chancellor of the German Reich in 1933. Hitler's compulsive hatred of everything Jewish, coupled with his pathological personality, led him to become the first person in history to systematically conceive and implement the extermination of European Jewry.

1923 BURTON HENDRICK (USA)

In his book The Jews in America, he called for the barring of further Jewish immigration.

1923 FELIX SALTEN (1869-1945) (Austria)

Wrote a novel about a deer in the forest called Bambi. Salten, an Austrian novelist and critic, worked at the Neue Freie Presse and was was a friend of Herzl.

1923 MARCEL MARCEAU (France)

Considered one of the greatest mimes of all time. His most famous character was a white faced clown named Bip. During World War II he helped smuggle children to Switzerland.

1923 POLAND

Began to methodically dismiss Jewish factory workers.

1923 NATIONAL SOCIALIST GERMAN WORKERS’ PARTY (Nazi Party) (Germany)

Won 800,000 votes. Less than 10 years later, they won 14 million votes..

1923 - 2004 RICHARD AVEDON (USA)

Commercial and fashion photographer. His portraits of celebrities portrayed a different and original spin using unconventional lights and unusual backgrounds.

1923 January 30, SOL BLOOM (1870-1949) (USA)

Was elected to Congress, and would serve until his death in 1949. Bloom was born into a poor Orthodox family yet succeeded in amassing a small fortune enabling him to retire early and enter politics. Bloom was a strong supporter of Roosevelt and was appointed as Chairman of the Foreign Affairs Committee at the beginning of the war. Although he made an effort to increase the number of Jews allowed into the United States, he did little to antagonize the administration and supported the State Department's positions. After the war, he became a supporter of Israel.

1923 April, BETAR (Brit Trumpeldor) (Riga, Latvia)

Was founded by Aaron Propes under the guidance and philosophy of Ze’ev (Vladimir) Jabotinsky. Betar believed in Jewish statehood, undiluted Zionism, self defense, Hebrew, and what was called Hadar a code of good manners, dignity and belief in the intrinsic value of the Jewish people.

1924 HAROLD MAURICE ABRAHAMS (1899-1978), (Britain)

Won the gold medal for 100 meters in the Paris Olympics and a silver medal in the relay. Although his active career was cut short by a leg injury, he continued to be active in sports. The story of Abrahams and Eric Liddell, both members of the British team, later became the basis of the 1981 film "Chariots of Fire."

1924 HILLEL FOUNDATION (USA)

Was started by Benjamin Frankel. The first Hillel House was opened at the University of Illinois. It provided religious and social functions, as well as counseling for the (often assimilated) Jewish students on campuses.

1924 JOHNSON ACT (USA)

Immigration quotas were reduced to two percent of the number of foreign born persons of each nationality that was present in 1890. As a result, immigration was reduced to a trickle. Between 1933-41 the same amount of German Jews (157,000) entered the USA as entered in 1906.

1924 JOINT DISTRIBUTION COMMITTEE

The Joint agreed to donate funds to help the Russian government resettle Jews in the Ukraine. Fewer than fifteen thousand were actually resettled.

1924 MADISON GRANT (USA)

Published his final edition of The Passing of the Great Race. Predicting that equality would eventually doom the nation, he promoted racist ideology and his hatred for "inferior people".

1924 - 1965 ELI COHEN (Egypt-Israel) 

Israel intelligence officer, Cohen succeeded in infiltrating the highest echelons of the Syrian military and civilian government before he was caught and hung in 1965. The Syrian government is still refusing to allow his widow to rebury him in Israel.

1924 - 1930 FOURTH ALIYAH (Eretz Israel)

Was comprised mainly of older Jews who feared conditions in Europe and were barred from the United States by its closed door policy (the Johnson Act). Nearly half of the 62,000 immigrants were from Poland. Due to an economic slump, 11,000 of the immigrants subsequently left the country.

1924 - 2014 LAUREN BACALL (Betty Joan Perske) (USA)

"The Look" as Warner Brothers billed her,rnmade her film debut starring opposite her husband-to-be, Humphrey Bogart in "To Have and Have Not" (1944). Over the next half century she performed in over 35 films. When her movie career cooled somewhat, she turned to Broadway, winning awards for her roles in Applause (1970) and Woman of the Year (1981). Although Bacall was never known by moviegoers as a "Jewish actress", according to her autobiography, she always felt proud of her Jewish heritage, which was rooted primarily in her love for her first-generation Jewish immigrant family.rn

1924 August 8, MEXICO

President Plutarco Elias Calles declared that his country would accept Jewish immigration. By 1937, Mexico reversed itself and many countries, including Poland and Romania, were allowed only 100 immigrant visas per year.

1924 September 22, RUSSIA

Chjekists (secret police) rounded up all known Zionists. Over thirty thousand were arrested and the Zionist organization was forced to move underground.

1925 AUSTRIA

Deans of all Austrian universities decided to deny Jews positions in higher education.

1925 HUNGARY

Count Stephan Bethle was elected prime minister. He promised to do away with anti-Semitism and succeeded until the Depression.

1925 UNITED STATES

For a short period of time the communists succeeded in taking over the most important local branches of the International Ladies Garment Workers Union.

1925 JEWISH AGRICULTURE (Argentina)

A total of 33,135 Jews worked in agriculture, 20,382 of them were farmers.

1925 February 5, ESTONIA

Became the only country in Eastern Europe to recognize its four minorities - Russian, German, Swedish, and Jewish, even though it had refused to become a signatory to the Minorities Treaties.

1925 February 10, THE TECHNION (The Israel Institute of Technology) (Eretz Israel) 

Was opened in Haifa, making it the first institute of higher education to be opened in Eretz Israel. Its first head was Shlomo Kaplansky whose goal was to train engineers to the highest of European standards. By 1952 the Technion was offering Masters and Doctorates. Today the Technion remains Israel's main training center for its high tech industries.

1925 April 1, HEBREW UNIVERSITY (Eretz Israel) 

Was opened in Jerusalem by Lord Balfour on Mount Scopus. Its first Chancellor was Dr. Judah Magnes. The idea for the university had been proposed as far back as the Kattowitz Conference in 1884 by Herman Schapira. Chaim Weizmann served as chairman of the board. Its library became known as the Jewish National Library and is the largest in the country. After the attack on the Hadassah convoy in 1948, the university was forced to relocate to the Givat Ram campus in Western Jerusalem. After the Six Day War the Hebrew University built a modern campus which was re-established on Mount Scopus in addition to the Givat Ram campus.

1925 April 30, PARIS (France) 

The Revisionist Party (Brit Ha-Tzionim Ha-Revisionistim) was founded by Zev (Vladimir) Jabotinsky. Jabotinsky adhered to the Herzlian concept that Zionism is basically an ideological movement. He demanded a more aggressive policy toward the British, believing that only world-wide pressure would force the British to abide by the Mandate. The revisionists believed that the highest priority of the Zionist movement should be in bringing the greatest number of Jews to Eretz Israel in the shortest possible time.

1925 August 7, NAHUM SHTIF ESTABLISHED YIVO (Yiddish Scientific Institute, Yidisher Visenshaftlikher Institut)

As a Yiddish academic institute with its center in Vilna. Its goal was to promote scholarly research in Yiddish, especially on Jewish life and history in Eastern Europe. In addition, it standardized Yiddish spelling and gathered thousands of documents on Jewish culture and folklore from over much of Europe.

1925 December 15, REZA KHAN ASCENDED THE THRONE OF PERSIA ( Iran)

Marking (with the help of the British) the onset of the Pahlavis dynasty which lasted until 1979. Khan (1878 - 1944), founded the modern Iranian state. He initially cancel all discriminatory laws against Jew and other minorities. Later on, he grew increasingly distrustful of any movements including Zionism and had one of the Jewish leaders Shmuel Hayyim (1891 -1931) murdered on a trumped up charge . He also grew close to Hitler, changing the name of the country from Persia to Iran in 1935 to reflect his belief that they were an Aryan race.

1926 DAVID SARNOFF (1891-1971) (Russia -USA)

Created the first radio chain, the National Broadcasting Company. He was known as the "Father of American Television". Sarnoff won fame as a young worker in atelegraph office the night of the Titanic disaster, where he remained for 72 hours relaying up-to-date information.

1926 - 1995 (16 Cheshvan 5755) SHLOMO CARLEBACH (Germany-USA) 

Singer and composer. Reb Shlomo, as he was known, is considered "The Father of Modern Jewish Music". He successfully synthesized the American folk idiom with traditional and Hasidic music, creating a following in both the observant and non-observant Jewish communities around the world. During the 1960's he established the "House of Love and Prayer" in San Francisco, which served as a magnet for many non-committed Jews. It was the only Jewish presence in Haight-Ashbury, a gathering point for young seekers in the 1960's and 1970's. Reb Shlomo's activities in Israel and the USA helped spur the Baal Teshuvah movement which brought many Jews back to Jewish observance.

1926 March 16, JERRY LEWIS (Joseph Levitch) (USA)

Comedian, actor, writer and director. Jerry Lewis made his debut at age five in New York's Borscht Circuit and at age 15, perfected a comic routine known as his "Record Act" - miming and silently mouthing lyrics of operatic and popular songs to a phonograph located off-stage. In 1946, Lewis formed a very successful partnership with Dean Martin which lasted 10 years. They made 16 films together sandwiched with nightclub, TV, and radio appearances. After the breakup, Lewis continued his successful acting career adding screenwriting and directing into his repertoire. Lewis' credits include the films Geisha Boy (1958), Bellboy (1960), The Nutty Professor (1963) and The King of Comedy (1983). He won the French Legion of Honor in 1984 and was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1977 for his tireless efforts in his fight against Muscular Dystrophy.

1926 May 26, SAMUEL SCHWARZBARD (Ukraine) 

Traveled to Paris to avenge his parents' death at the hands of Petlura. After days of stalking, he confronted him, shot him and surrendered to the police. He was acquitted by the court of Assizes on all charges.

1927 LEGION OF ARCHANGEL MICHAEL (Romania)

Was founded by Corneliu Codreanu (1899-1938). This fascist Christian-nationalist anti-Semitic organization was the forerunner of the Iron Guard which led most of the anti-Semitic movement in Romania before and during World War II.

1927 June 21, NEW YORK (USA) 

Three Jewish interns at Kings County Hospital were attacked and tied up.

1927 June 30, HENRY FORD (USA) 

The automobile magnet was forced to publicly apologize for libel against the Jews. Aaron Sapiro, a lawyer, had accused Ford and his Dearborn Independent of the libel. Although the case was a personal one, the newspaper's anti-Semitic propaganda figured heavily in the case. Ford was forced to retract some of his accusations and apologize.

1928 USSR

Two Zionist emissaries were arrested and never heard from again.

1928 February 28, BIROBIJAN, USSR

Decided to set up a Jewish district (Yevreyskaya Avtonomnaya Oblast) in Birobijan in South- Eastern Siberia. Most of its 14,000 square miles (36,000-square-kilometers) were uninhabitable due to floods. It was to be used as a buffer zone against China.

1928 September 22, THE MASSENA BLOOD LIBEL, (upstate New York, USA)

On the eve of the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur), Rabbi Berel Brennglass of Massena's Orthodox congregation Adath Israel was called to police headquarters at the suggestion of Mayor W. Gilbert Hawes, to answer charges on ritual murder after a four year old girl disappeared. Although she turned up the next day there remained a strong undercurrent of anti-Semitism in the town.

1929 MURRAY GELL-MANN (USA)

Physicist. Gell-Mann helped develop the school of particle physics with his classification known as the "Eightfold way" which he developed together with Yuval Neeman in Israel. His work earned him the Nobel Prize in 1969. Gell-man called the new particles quarks, a name taken from James Joyce's Finnegans Wake.

1929 June 12, - 1945 March 15, ANNE FRANK (Amsterdam, Holland) 

Anne was born in Frankfurt, but spent most of her life in Holland. Once the deportations began, Anne and her family moved to a hiding place and stayed there from July 9,1942, until they were betrayed in August 4, 1944. She died in the Bergen- Belsen concentration camp from typhus, shortly before the liberation. Anne had hoped to become a writer and succeeded beyond anything she could have imagined when her diary was published in 1947. Since then, over 20 million copies of Anne Frank: The Diary of a Young Girl, edited by Otto Frank, her father, have been printed and over 50 editions published. A theatrical version, The Diary of Anne Frank, opened on Broadway in 1955 and was awarded a Pulitzer Prize, as well as a Tony for Best Play of the Year (1955). A film was later produced in 1959. For many, Anne’s diary is the main exposure to the horrors of the Holocaust.

1929 August 11, JEWISH AGENCY (Zurich, Switzerland) 

Was created at the 16th Zionist Congress, to include non-Zionists in the creation of the State. Among them were Louis Marshall, Leon Blum and Felix Warburg.

1929 August 16, ERETZ ISRAEL

Although warned by the Zionist Executive that the Arabs were preparing to attack the Jews of Jerusalem with massive riots, High Commissioner Sir John Chancelor refused to cut his vacation short, declaring that relations between the two sides were improving. The day after the ninth of Av, after Friday prayers, two thousand Arabs attacked Jews praying at the Western Wall. One Jewish youth was stabbed in the back. The British Government refused to condemn the attack, leading the Arabs again to believe that the British supported their riots.

1929 August 23, ERETZ ISRAEL 

Arabs began to riot throughout pre-state Israel after Moslem Friday prayers. The next day, the riots spread to Hebron where over 60 Jews were killed and over 50 injured. During the week of August 23-29, 113 Jews were killed and 339 wounded. As a result, Sir Walter Shaw headed a commission which urged the banning of Jewish immigration and absolved the Arabs and the Mufti of guilt. Another commission led by Sir John Simpson declared that the entire Zionist operation was unsound and undesirable. Both of these commissions were under the auspices of Lord Passfield, the British Colonial Secretary.

1929 October 10, PRICES COLLAPSE ON THE NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE (USA)

The Jewish community, which relied heavily on contributions, had to retrench, cutting back on essential services to orphanages, synagogues and schools. Discrimination in the form of job rejections became commonplace. The Depression led to a hiatus in immigration to the USA and pressure on the government to apply immigration quotas. The Depression was world-wide and encouraged the growth of both communism and fascism. In Germany it led directly to the rise of the Nazi party.

1930 BRITAIN

Granted Iraq independence.

1930 ERETZ ISRAEL

Jewish population reached 175,000.

1930 March 31, SHAW COMMISSION (Eretz Israel)

Issued its report. Although it laid the blame for the riots on the Arabs it called for a more restricted policy with regard to Jewish immigration and land purchase.

1930 June 24, YESHIVAT CHACHMEI (HAKHMEI) LUBLIN (Poland)

Was opened. Founded by Rabbi Meir Shapiro, the school had 120 rooms on six floors with lecture halls and a 40,000 book library. Shapiro fought against the idea that talmudic students had to live in poverty and study under difficult conditions. Each perspective student had to know 200 pages of Talmud by heart. The building and library were taken over by the Nazis and is today a nursing school.

1930 August 22, HOPE-SIMPSON REPORT (Eretz Israel) 

Sir John Hope-Simpson, sent by the British, looked into Arab economic complaints and decided that Palestine had no industrial prospects. He recommended the cessation of all Jewish immigration and a settlement freeze. His report was the basis for the infamous Passfield White Paper.

1930 October 20, LORD PASSFIELD (Eretz Israel) 

Issued his "White Paper" banning further land acquisition by Jews and slowing Jewish immigration. Weizmann, who had always toed a pro-British line, resigned in protest.

1931 - 1934 ENGLEBERT DOLFUSS (Austria)

An anti-communist who served as chancellor. He soon convinced the president to appoint him dictator (1933). Although he persecuted the Nazis, he considered all Jews communists and treated them as such.

1931 - 1939 FIFTH ALIYAH (Eretz Israel)

One hundred thousand Jews came to Eretz Israel, most of them from Germany.

1931 - 1936 GENERAL GYULA VON GOMBOS (Hungary)

Former head of the "White Terror" riots, he became prime minister and fostered anti-Semitism. He once headed the Party of Racial Defense dedicated to anti-Semitism.

1931 BETAR (Latvia)

Established a Navy School in Riga.

1931 HABIMAH THEATER (Russia/USSR-Eretz Israel) 

Moved to Eretz Israel where Habimah eventually became the National Theater. The theater played an important role in the developing of Hebrew as a National language.

1931 MANDATORY GOVERNMENT (Eretz Israel)

Decided that the Western Wall area was part of the Temple Mount and belonged to the Moslem Wakf. Therefore Jews would henceforth not be permitted to blow the Shofar as part of prayers services on Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur.

1931 October, GERALD WINROD (Kansas, USA)

A Protestant preacher, spurred by his belief in Jewish Bolshevism, wrote The Hidden Hand, a book about the "Protocols". He followed it with a slew of pamphlets and books as well as a magazine called The Defender, all anti-Semitic. He was dubbed "The American Streicher" by the German press.

1932 MOSCOW (Russia)

An exclusively anti-Jewish section was opened in the Central anti-Religious Museum, showing the "stupidities of Judaism".

1932 HERBERT HENRY LEHMAN (USA)

Was elected New York's first Jewish governor. From that time on, Jews formed a pact with the Democratic Party.

1932 March 28, FIRST MACCABIAH GAMES (Eretz Israel) 

Were held in Tel Aviv. Participants arrived from 21 countries.

1932 June 9, HYDROELECTRIC POWER STATION (Naharayim, Eretz Israel) 

Built by Pinhas Rutenberg, founder of the Palestine Electric Company. Located near where the Yarmuk and Jordan rivers meet, it regulated the flow from the Sea of Galilee through a dam and a power station. It was destroyed by the Jordanians in 1948.

1932 September, GERMANY

Chancellor von Papen, frightened by communist inroads into Germany, persuaded President von Hindenburg to offer Hitler the chancellorship, hoping to keep Hitler as a puppet.

1933 - 1939 BRITAIN

Admitted 75,000 Jews.

1933 - 1939 GERMANY

More than 1400 anti-Jewish laws were passed.

1933 POLAND

Members of anti-Semitic political organizations (Endeks and Naras) attacked Jews in the streets.

1933 PRIOR TO THIS YEAR

Eleven of the thirty-eight Germans to win the Nobel Prize and three of the six Austrians were Jewish.

1933 HENRY MORGENTHAU JR. (USA)

Was appointed chairman of the Agricultural Administration Committee by Roosevelt. He later served as Secretary of the Treasury.

1933 January 1, HINDENBURG RESIGNED (Germany)

Hitler was appointed chancellor of the Reich on Jan 30th.

1933 January 30, YOUTH ALIYAH (Berlin, Germany) 

The previous year Recha Freier, a rabbi's wife decided it would be a good idea to send young people from Germany to kibbutzim. She founded the Juedische Jugendhilfe (Jewish Youth Help) organization to help facilitate the work. That same year it became a department of the World Zionist Organization under Henrietta Szold, whose name is linked to the saving of over 15,000 young people from Germany and Nazi occupied countries.

1933 March, BRESLAU (Germany)

Jewish lawyers and judges were attacked by the Nazis. This was the first official violence against Jews.

1933 March 5, HITLER (Germany) 

Needing support for his minority government, he called for elections. He terrorized all the opposition, including the communists whom he accused of setting a "mysterious" fire in the Reichstag. After the election, Hitler asked his new majority government to grant him dictatorial powers, which they did.

1933 March 10, DACHAU CONCENTRATION CAMP (Germany)

Was established. It was the first of the SS run imprisonment camps. A month earlier Germany passed a law which would allow people to be imprisoned for an unlimited period of time if they were deemed hostile to the regime. Soon after other camps were set up to hold such prisoners. Often factories were set up near the camps and paid for the "use" of laborers. Although not a "death or extermination camp" per se, Dachau and other camps like it practiced daily murder, starvation, and sadistic medical experiments on their inmates. Forty thousand Jews probably died in Dachau. Other camps included Sachsenhausen, Buchenwald, Ravensbrueck (for women). Several of the camps had crematoria to get rid of the large number of corpses. According to an agreement with Himmler, the Gestapo were the ones to make the arrests while the SS ran the camps. Only in 1941 were the special death camps or extermination camps created.

1933 March 19, PHILIP MILTON ROTH (USA)

Popular novelist who gained fame for his portrayal of Jewish life in America. His satirical Portnoy's Complaint became a best seller in 1969. Among his other books are My Life As a Man, Our Gang, The Counterlife, and many others.

1933 March 20, VILNA (Lithuania) 

At the initiative of the Jews of Vilna, an anti-Nazi boycott began. It eventually spread all over Poland and to many countries in Europe. Yet within 6 months Poland itself signed a non-aggression treaty with Hitler which called for the cessation of all boycott activities.

1933 March 27, NEW YORK CITY PROTEST (USA)

Against the Nazi regime brought out over 50,000 people.

1933 April 1, GERMANY

Embarked on an anti-Jewish boycott.

1933 April 7, BEGINNING OF ANTI-JEWISH LEGISLATION (Germany)

The Civil Service Law prohibited Jews from holding public service jobs. These included the civil service, army, labor service, commerce, teachers and lawyers.

1933 April 11, NICHTARIER ("non-Aryan") (Germany)

Became a legal classification, known as the Arierparagraph (Aryan Clause). According to this, anyone who had a Jewish grandparent was considered Jewish even if the person had converted. This made it "legal" to discharge Jews from their position in the universities, hospitals, and legal professions. In some countries under later NAZI occupation (Italy, Bulgaria, etc.) this definition was modified so that it didn't include the children of converts or converts who were married to local Christians.

1933 April 26, BISHOP WILHELM BERNING AND MONSIGNOR STEINMANN

Special envoys from the Pope met with Hitler, who proposed that he was "doing Christianity a great service" with his policy regarding the Jews. The Vatican representatives described the meeting as "cordial and to the point."

1933 April 26, THE GESTAPO (Geheime Staatspolizei) (Germany)

Secret State Police was established. After a short time Hermann Goering was appointed as commander and changed its character to one of a political police force. Within a year Goering agreed to transfer the Gestapo to Heinrich Himmler where it came under the jurisdiction of the SS. The Gestapo was in charge of investigating, along with the S.D. all enemies of the Reich of which the Jews figured prominently. In addition the Gestapo eventually played a major role in planning and the carrying out of the "Final Solution". Although the S.S. for the most part ran the concentration camps, the Gestapo was responsible for rounding up the Jews as well as overseeing the Einsatzgruppen or Special duty groups. In 1936, Reinhard Heydrich became head of the Gestapo and Heinrich Müller, its chief of operations. Müller took over after Heydrich's assassination in 1942. He disappeared near the end of the war and was never caught.

1933 May 10, GERMANY 

All "un-German" books were ordered to be burned in public. Over 20,000 mostly Jewish books were burned.

1933 May 17, BERNHEIM PETITION

Was sent to the League of Nations by Franz Bernheim and the Comite des Delegations Juives (Committee of Jewish Delegations). In it he demanded that the Nazis rescind their anti-Jewish legislation in Upper Silesia since it was in contravention to the German-Polish Convention of May 15, 1922. The League agreed and the German government canceled the anti-Jewish regulations. This remained in effect until July 15, 1937, when the convention expired.

1933 May 17, NORWAY

Vidkun Quisling established the Norwegian Fascist Party. About 1,800 Jews lived in Norway.

1933 June 22, HAYIM ARLOSOROFF (Eretz Israel) 

A Zionist leader within the Zionist labor party, he was murdered on a beach outside Tel Aviv. The Labor leaders tried to pin the blame on Abba Ahimeir of the Revisionist Party and specifically on Abraham Stavsky and Zvi Rosenblatt. At the trial they were all acquitted but the government refused to reveal the details of what really happened. Ironically, Stavsky was killed aboard the Altalena, an Irgun ship fired upon by the Haganah while trying to bring arms into the country during the Arab-Israel cease-fire of June 1948.

1933 July 13, GERMANY 

Nazism was declared the sole German party.

1933 July 20, CARDINAL PACELLI 

Issued a concordat known as the Hitler Concordat. It was described by Hitler as "unrestricted acceptance of National Socialism by the Vatican". Cardinal Pacelli later became Pope Pius XII.

1933 July 25, JACOB ROSENHEIM (Germany)

President of Agudat Israel in Germany pleaded with Lord Melchett of Britain and British Chief Rabbi Hertz not to boycott German goods, calling it "a near crime against humanity". Agudat Israel was afraid that such actions would become provocations and goad Hitler to pursue a harsher policy against the Jews.

1933 July 26, REVOCATION AND ANULLMENT LAW (Germany)

Was passed, providing the Nazis with a "legal" tool to revoke the naturalization of Eastern European Jews living in the Reich.

1933 August 25, TRANSFER (Haavara) AGREEMENT

Negotiated between the German Zionist Federation, the Jewish Agency and the German Finance Ministry. The agreement encouraged the emigration of German Jews. Although forced to leave their assets in Germany, they received partial payment through the Jewish agency which in turn imported and sold German goods for the same amount of capital although it was forced to accept a far lower rate of exchange. Levi Eshkol (later prime minister) was sent to Berlin to run the company. The agreement was strongly criticized by Jabotinsky and those Jews trying to organize a boycott of German goods. In all, $40,419,000 was transferred to Germany by 1939, while almost 60,000 German Jews were able to leave to Eretz Israel.

1934 AFGHANISTAN

Two thousand Jews were expelled from towns and cities and forced to live in the wilderness.

1934 - 1945 UNITED STATES

Only agreed to accept around 1000 refugee children. Britain, Belgium, Sweden, France, and Holland all took in more.

1934 January 26, GERMAN-POLISH NON-AGRESSION PACT

Was signed. Poland promised not to engage in anti-Nazi propaganda and all criticism of Germany was suppressed. Poland signed a similar pact with Russia in July 1932.

1934 March 23, LAW REGARDING EXPULSION FROM THE REICH (Germany)

Was passed. It became the basis for the deportation of Eastern European Jews.

1934 May 1, DER STÜRMER (Germany) 

The Nazi periodical, run by Julius Streicher, reminded people that Jews were accused of ritual murder of Christian children during the Middle ages.

1934 May 2, LOUIS T. MCFADDEN

A congressman from Pennsylvania who attacked the Jews in Congress. This was the first act of political anti-Semitism in the United States.

1934 May 7, BIROBIJAN (USSR)

The district of Birobijan (Birobidzhan) in south eastern Siberia was established as a Jewish Autonomous Region which was to cover an area of 14,000 square miles (36,000-square-kilometers). Its official language would be Yiddish. Within two years the government had a change of heart and its Jewish socialist leaders were liquidated. Partly due to its primitiveness and remoteness, it never reached a population of more than 18,000, less than a quarter of the total population of the region.

1934 May 17, MADISION SQUARE GARDEN (New York City, USA)

Thousands attended a pro-Nazi rally sponsored by the German-American Bund and its leader Fritz Kuhn. The Bund, active from 1934-1941, claimed to be "100% American." Their proclaimed goal was to be for the "constitution, flag and a white gentile ruled, truly free America."

1934 June 30, NIGHT OF THE LONG KNIVES (Germany) 

Hitler ordered the execution of some of the SA (Sturmabteilung or "Stormtroopers") leaders whose absolute loyalty he questioned, including Ernst Roehm. Until that night the SS (Schutzstaffelor "defense echelon") under Himmler was subordinate to the SA. After that night the SS became independent and was put in charge of the concentration camps.

1934 July 2, THRACE POGROMS (European part of Turkey)

Which had begun a few weeks earlier with a boycott of Jewish owned businesses, soon included actual attacks on Jewish property. They occurred after the passing of the Turkish Resettlement Law (which proposed forceful assimilation of non-Turkish minorities), and a recent visit by the inspector general of Thrace, Ibrahim Tali Ongoren. He was quoted as stating publicly “The Jew of Thrace is so morally corrupt and devoid of character … worships gold, and knows no love of the homeland.” Approximately 10,000 Jews fled to Istanbul and other areas, before calm was re-established. No reparations or efforts to restore stolen property were made.

1934 July 4, THEODOR EICKE (Germany)

The first commandant of Dachau was appointed the Inspectorate of Concentration Camps. Himmler bestowed this reward to express his thanks to Eicke for personally murdering SA chief of staff Ernst Roehm during the Night of the Long Knives. His Death's Head Units (Totenkopfverbande), a special unit from the SS, became the guards for the camps. Eicke held the position until the war when he moved to the field. He was killed in Russia.

1934 July 25, AUSTRIA 

Nazis attempted to overthrow the Austrian government. Chancellor Dollfus was assassinated, but the putsch failed and Kurt von Schuschnigg was appointed chancellor. He in turn tried his best to curtail Nazi influence in Austria.

1934 August, VON HINDENBERG (Germany) 

Died, leaving Hitler as Germany's sole leader.

1934 August 25, "ILLEGAL" IMMIGRATION - HA'APALAH (ALIYAH BET) (1934-1948)

The arrival of the Vellos (chartered by the HeHalutz movement) and its 350 refugees signaled the beginning of organized efforts to save European Jewry. Although illegal immigration had been taking place since 1920, only now were major efforts begun. The Revisionist Zionist movement and Betar succeeded in the next two years to send out several ships, which saved thousands of lives. By 1938 illegal immigration had become an official part of the Zionist effort. An estimated 50,000 people managed to arrive illegally between 1920 and 1937. The Jewish Agency at the time was working with the British and hoped that the Peel Report (November 1936) would be favorable to the establishment of a state and as such was against "illegal immigration".

1934 September 5, WILLIAM DUDLEY PELLEY (USA)

Leader of the Silver Legion, the most prominent of the Ku Klux Klan movements, issued his "New Emancipation Proclamation", promising to impose racial quotas "on the political and economical structure".

1934 September 12, CONGRESSMAN EMANUEL CELLER (USA)

Called on Congress for the boycott of the 1936 Olympics in Germany. Two weeks later, Avery Brundage, President of the American Olympic Committee, announced that the United States would participate in the games.

1934 September 13, POLAND

Just eight months after Poland signed a non-aggression pact with Germany, it revoked the minority treaty - the first international effort to establish and enforce minority rights - that was signed in Paris in 1919 on the same day as the Versailles treaty.

1934 October, BERNE TRIAL (Switzerland)

Was held after a demonstration in June of the National Front (a Swiss anti-Semitic organization) during which copies of the "Protocols" were distributed. The Jewish community brought a suit against the leaders for publishing and distributing indecent writings. Though later a court of appeals repealed the sentences, the trial succeeded in proving the "Protocols" a forgery.

1935 GERMANY

In an interview with London journalists, Dr. Joseph Goebbels asserted that the goal of Nazism was that "Jewry must perish".

1935 SANDY KOUFAX (USA)

Baseball player - Koufax was the youngest player ever elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame. He won three Cy Young Awards and pitched four no-hitters. Like Hank Greenberg, Koufax was proud of his Jewish heritage and refused to play on Yom Kippur.

1935 MOSCOW (USSR)

All but one member of the HeHalutz Central Committee were arrested.

1935 January 11, HAKIBBUTZ HADATI (Eretz Israel) 

The religious kibbutz movement was founded. This kibbutz movement was affiliated with the HaPoel HaMizrachi movement and the religious Zionist Labor Organization. Its idea was to combine religious life and labor in communal agricultural settlements, the first being Tirat Tzvi.

1935 September 12, NEW ZIONIST ORGANIZATION 

Was founded in Vienna by Ze'ev Jabotinsky. For many years there was tension between the World Zionist Organization and the Revisionist Party. Some of it was the result of tactical differences, including the expansion of the Jewish Agency to include non-Zionists. In addition, there was still strong resentment and political tensions in the aftermath of the Arlosoroff murder, which had initially been blamed on the Revisionists. The actual break came with a resolution to prohibit any independent political activity of Zionist organizations. Eleven years later they rejoined the World Zionist Organizaton.

1935 September 15, NUREMBERG LAWS (Germany)

"The law for the protection of German Blood and Honor" was instituted. As part of these laws, it became a capital offense to marry or have intimate relations with a Jew. The law was more specific than the 1933 laws regarding mixed or Mischlinge Jews, which defined as a Jew as anyone with one Jewish grandparent. The racial law was based on that Nazi belief that the basic freedoms of individuals were superseded by "racial or national characteristics" which were supposed to make some people inferior to others. As part of the "Reich Law", Jews were no longer citizens (with rights) but rather subjects of the Reich. These were among the 2,000 laws enacted against Jews which included the revoking of German citizenship, the prohibition against serving in the public sector, owning or editing newspapers, or immigrating to Germany.

1935 December 8, LVOV POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE

Introduced the ghetto bench, special seats for Jewish students. This soon spread to many other universities in Poland.

1936 POLAND

Edward Smigly-Rydz (Pilsudski's immediate successor) ordered Jews to be segregated in university classrooms. He was part of what was known as the anti-Semitic "colonels" clique." (see 1937)

1936 ERETZ ISRAEL

Mapai (Labor Zion) emerged as the major political party.

1936 GREGORY ZINOVIEV (1883-1936) (Russia)

A Russian communist leader who was accused in a show trial of plotting to overthrow Stain. Along with many other leaders he was executed. Zinoviev was one of Lenin's closest associates, co-authoring Lenin's Against the Tide. Though a member of the Party's central government, he was opposed to a one party rule which brought him into conflict with other leaders. After Lenin's death he formed the triumvirate together with Stalin and Kamenev which forced Trotsky into exile. Zinoviev was Jewish and born by the name of Hersh Zvi Radomyslski.

1936 ROMANIA

A. C. Cuza, Octavian Goga, and Corneliu Codreanu (head of the Facist Iron Guard), joined in an anti-Semitic demonstration with 280,000 people and the blessings of the Romanian Orthodox Church and the Patriarch Miron Cristea.

1936 - 1938 WILLIAM PELLEY (USA)

American Fascist and leader of the Silver Legion, mailed three and a half tons of anti-Semitic literature within these 2 years. Even after Pearl Harbor he continued to attack Roosevelt, and accused the American government of lying to the people. He was eventually charged and tried for sedition and jailed until 1950.

1936 February 4, DAVID FRANKFURTER 

A Jewish Yugoslav medical student, he killed the Swiss Nazi, Gauleiter Wilhelm Gustoff. Though the German government demanded the death penalty, he was sentenced to eighteen years instead. Some historians believe that his action served as a model for Herschel Grynszpan, whose assassination of ambassador Ernst vom Rath was used by the Nazi party as an excuse for an all-out attack on Jewish property and synagogues (Kristallnacht).

1936 February 14, THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

Appointed Sir Neil Malcolm to succeed James McDonald as High Commissioner for Refugees. Sir Neil announced that the High Commissioner for Refugees "has nothing to do with the domestic policy of Germany... we deal with persons when they become refugees and not before".

1936 February 29, CARDINAL AUGUST HLOND (Poland)

Newly appointed Primate of Poland. He declared in a pastoral letter that since Jews are usurers, slave traders and frauds, Poles should boycott their businesses.

1936 March 18, MASS PROTESTS (Poland)

By Jews and Polish workers against anti-Semitic violence. Despite the tens of thousands who joined, the effect was insignificant.

1936 April 21, BEGINNING OF THE 36-39 RIOTS (ME'ORAOT) (Eretz Israel)

Arab headquarters called for a general strike and a rebellion against the Mandate in an effort to prevent Jewish immigration. Initially 80 Jews were murdered and 308 wounded. By the fall of '39, over a hundred Jews had been killed in Arab attacks. The official Zionist policy at the time was havlagah (self-restraint).

1936 April 25, ARAB HIGHER COMMITTEE (Eretz Israel)

Was established under the guidance of the Jerusalem Mufti, Haj Amin al-Husseini. Husseini was already notorious for his pivotal role in encouraging the anti-Jewish riots of 1920 and 1929. Despite this, the British had tried to placate him and had appointed him the Mufti of Jerusalem (1921). In 1937 he was finally dismissed by the British, and the Arab Higher Committee was outlawed. Supported by the Axis powers, the Arab Higher Committee encouraged "Nationalistic" raids on Jewish settlements. The leader of these raids was Fawzi Kaukji, a former Iraqi officer who was responsible for the murder of King Abdullah of Jordan (1951).

1936 June 4, LEON BLUM (1872-1950) (France) 

Became the first Jew to be elected premier of France. Blum, a socialist, instituted the 40 hour work week and many important social reforms. His government, lasting only one year, fell over lack of parliamentary support for his financial program.

1936 June 4, PRIME MINISTER FELICJAN SLAWOJ-SKLADKOWSKI (Poland)

Endorsed an "economic war" against the Jews

1936 July 30, SPAIN 

General Franco declared his Fascist government and the Spanish Civil War broke out. Out of the 35,000 volunteers of the International Brigades, approximately 7000 were Jewish. During the Second World War Spain officially remained neutral, yet Franco sent troops to fight against the Russians, and Spain later served as a refuge for fleeing Nazis.

1936 August 8, WORLD JEWISH CONGRESS 

Was convened in Geneva with 280 delegates from 32 countries. The World Jewish Congress' goal was to "assure the survival, and to foster the unity of the Jewish people". It was founded by Stephen Wise and Nahum Goldmann. Although they organized a boycott of German goods, they felt that a more direct approach would prompt the Nazis "to even harsher policies".

No Jew has the right to yield the rights of the Jewish People in Israel -
David Ben Gurion
(David Ben-Gurion was the first Prime Minister of Israel and widely hailed as the State's main founder).
“No Jew is entitled to give up the right of establishing [i.e. settling] the Jewish Nation in all of the Land of Israel. No Jewish body has such power. Not even all the Jews alive today [i.e. the entire Jewish People] have the power to cede any part of the country or homeland whatsoever. This is a right vouchsafed or reserved for the Jewish Nation throughout all generations. This right cannot be lost or expropriated under any condition or circumstance. Even if at some particular time, there are those who declare that they are relinquishing this right, they have no power nor competence or authority to deprive coming generations of this right. The Jewish nation is neither bound nor governed by such a waiver or renunciation. Our right to the whole of this country is valid, in force and endures forever. And until the Final Redemption has come, we will not budge from this historic right.”
BEN-GURION’S DECLARATION ON THE EXCLUSIVE AND
INALIENABLE JEWISH RIGHT TO THE WHOLE OF
THE LAND OF ISRAEL:
at the Basle Session of the 20th Zionist Congress at Zurich (1937)

1936 October 25, BERLIN-ROME AXIS

Was formed between Hitler and Benito Mussolini. This treaty helped pave the way for the beginning of World War II.

1936 November 11, PEEL COMMISSION

A royal commission of inquiry, headed by Lord Robert Peel, arrived in Jerusalem on Armistice Day to investigate Arab riots. Though Peel judged Arab claims to be baseless, he encouraged partition into three separate Arab and Jewish states and an International zone. This, he claimed, would silence Arab objections to a Jewish state.

1936 December 5, IRGUN ZVAI LEUMI (Etzel)(Eretz –Israel) 

Signed an agreement with Vladimir Jabotinsky. The Irgun, which was known at that time as Haganah Bet, was under the command of Abraham Tehomi who had split with the Haganah five years earlier. The agreement was that Tehomi would be the commander under Jabotinsky's political guidance. Tehomi rejoined the Haganah a year later and took 30% of his forces with him. The Irgun believed that armed force was a prerequisite for the creation of a Jewish state, that Arabs who attacked Jews should expect retaliation and that no one had a right to prevent Jews from immigrating. The relationship between the Irgun and the Haganah was usually stormy, though they did have periods of cooperation.

1936 December 10, TOWER AND STOCKADE SETTLEMENTS (Homa U'Migdal (Eretz Israel) 

The first of the Tower and Stockade Settlements, Tel Amel, (modern day Kibbutz Nir David) was erected. These settlements were a Jewish response to the Arab attacks from 1936 to 1939. Built of prefabricated wood, on remote parcels of land purchased by the Jewish National Fund, they were set up overnight with the help of hundreds of volunteers. Eventually 118 of this type of settlement were erected throughout the Galilee, Beit Shean Valley and the Jordan Valley.

1936 December 26, ARTURO TOSCANINI (Tel Aviv, Eretz Israel)

Conducted the first concert of the Palestine Orchestra, which later became known as the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra.

1936 December 27, SYRIA

Ratified the Franco-Syrian treaty. After many riots, France granted Syria and Lebanon independence.In actuality both countries only became independent after WWII.

1937 COLOMBUS PLATFORM (USA)

Central Conference of American Rabbis (Reform) reaffirmed the basic reform philosophies, but was less anti-traditional and anti-nationalistic regarding Israel.

1937 LOUIS DARQUIER DE PELLEPOIX

Founded and headed the Rassemblement anti-Juif de France. His program included promoting the "Protocols" and his own magazine, La France Enchaines, as well as calling for the expulsion or extermination of the Jews. During the war he became Commissioner General for Jewish affairs and helped deport nine thousand foreign Jews to German camps.

1937 ROMANIA

King Carol II, though previously a supporter of the National Peasants Party (led by Julius Maniu) which fought against anti-Semitism, appointed Octavian Goga to form a government. Goga was a former leader in the fascist Iron Guard. His government lasted only seven weeks.

1937 February 7, BOLESLAW PIASECKI (Poland)

Head of the Oboz Narodowo-Radykalny National Radical Camp – ONR) a facist Polish party which supported 'Catholic totalitarianism', called for the expulsion of all Jews from Poland

1937 March 14, POPE PIUS XI 

Criticized the Nazis for interfering with Catholic education in the Third Reich. Although he denounced Nazi racism and totalitarianism, he also mentioned that the Jews were guilty of deicide. This was one of the few times the Vatican came out publicly against the Nazi regime. The next pope, Pius XII, did even less.

1937 April 13, AF AL PI (In Spite Of) OPERATIONS (Eretz Israel) 

Moshe Galili, a member of Betar who was studying in Italy, succeeded in landing a small boat of German immigrants in Eretz Israel. He continued to work in "illegal immigration" until June 1938, bringing in over 550 people, most of whom were young.

1937 June, BRAZIL

The ministry of Foreign Affairs distributed a secret memo urging all Brazilian consuls not to grant visas to Jews. In spite of this, between the years 1933 and 1945 almost 100,000 Jews made their way to Latin America.

1937 June 11, GENERAL YONA YAKIR ( Russia)

Along with eight other high ranking officials and officers (five of them Jewish) were killed by Stalin. Yakir, holder of two Orders of the Red Banner and one of the founders of the Red Army, had just been appointed commander of the Leningrad military region less then three weeks earlier. This marked the beginning of the Great Purge in which 30,000 officers and political commissars were murdered, an act that would almost cost Stalin WWII. It is estimated that at least 1,500 of them were Jewish.

1937 July, - August, ERETZ ISRAEL

Arab riots convinced the British to send another commission, this time headed by Sir John Woodhead, who declared partition unworkable.

1937 July 7, PEEL COMMISSION REPORT INVESTIGATING THE 1936 RIOTS 

Was published. The Peel Commission recommended the partition of Mandatory Palestine into two states. The Zionist Congress (see August 3), while rejecting the actual borders, agreed to consider the proposal. The Arabs rejected it out of hand.

1937 July 19, - 1945 April 11, BUCHENWALD (Germany) 

Concentration camp. In all, almost 240,000 people were interned in Buchenwald. Over 56,500 of them died from disease, starvation or were murdered. During the last few days of Buchenwald, an underground succeeded in taking over the camp, preventing the German's mass evacuation plans.

1937 August 3 - 16, 20th ZIONIST CONGRESS 

Under Weizmann and Ben Gurion, the Zionist Congress decided to accept the partition plan in light of the Peel Report. Berl Katznelson, Menachem Ussishkin from Mapai (Labor) as well as the Revisionists and the Orthodox fiercely argued against it.

1937 October, FERENC SZALASI (Hungary)

"Prophet of Hungarian National Socialism" merged similar parties into the anti-Semitic Arrow Cross Party. It was originally formed in 1933 by Zoltan Mesko after the swastika was declared an illegal emblem.

1937 October 7, OZON (Poland)

The anti-Semitic Camp of National Unity (Oboz Zjednoczenia Narodowego) was created by Colonel Adam Koc, Polish President Ignacy Moscicki and Minister of Defense Smigly-Rydz. They organized boycotts and encouraged pogroms, all under the guise of national defense.

1937 October 20, POLAND

In response to discrimination policies, Jews, assorted liberals and students went on strike. Within a few weeks the government succeeded in putting down the strike and enforcing its decrees.

1938 January 12, POSEIDON (Eretz Israel)

An illegal ship charted by HeHalutz arrived in Eretz Israel signaling a renewed attempt to bring in refugees. Later that year the Haganah officially joined the effort, establishing the Mosad le-Aliyah Bet ("Organization for 'Illegal' Immigration") which was run by Shaul Avigur (Meirov).

1938 January 21, ROMANIA

Jewish citizenship was revoked. Miron Cristea - patriarch of the Romanian Orthodox Church and successor to Goga - declared: "The Jews are sucking the marrow from the bones of the nation."

1938 March 9, THE CHANCELLOR OF AUSTRIA 

Dr. Kurt von Schuschnigg announced a plebiscite on the question of Austrian independence. His policy was to try and keep Austria semi-independent and to limit the more overt anti-Semitic activities. Hitler furiously demanded his resignation, which, under threat of an armed invasion, arrived two days later. His resignation opened the way to the Anschluss (annexation) of Austria by Germany on March 12.

1938 March 13, HITLER ENTERED AUSTRIA (the Anschluss) 

To the greetings of the Church and Cardinal Innitzer. All Catholic Churches flew the Nazi flag and rang bells in honor of Hitler's troops. Dr. Arthur Seys-Inquert, who later achieved infamy as a mass murderer of Jews, was appointed chancellor. Austria was annexed to Germany and with it the Austrian Jews.

1938 March 25, POLAND 

After several attempts, the Seym (parliament) outlawed ritual slaughter of meat. The bill was never enforced since the Seym dissolved in September during the Czech crisis.

1938 April 26, NEW RESTRICTIONS (Germany)

A law was passed that all Jewish assets with a value of over five thousand reichsmark ($2,000) per person had to be declared. This eventually led to the seizure of all Jewish property.

1938 May 22, FIFTY CHILDREN ( Vienna)

Left Austria after receiving visa permits for the United States. This was conceived of and orchestrated by Gilbert and Eleanor Krauss, wealthy and well connected Philadelphian Jews who traveled to Austria and Germany in order to facilitate their escape. This was the largest private initiative to help Jewish children receive sanctuary in the USA.

1938 June 1, MASS ARRESTS (Germany)

Reinhard Heydrich, head of the Gestapo, also known as the Secret Police, ordered the arrest of thousands of German Jews. Most were sent to Buchenwald which soon had to be enlarged. Others were sent to Dachau and Sachsenhausen. In Dachau the prisoners were told to make lots of yellow stars in preparation for a new influx of prisoners.

1938 June 29, SHLOMO BEN YOSEF (Shalom Tabachnik) (Eretz Israel)

Was hung for alleged terrorist activities. Ben Yosef a member of Betar, along with Abraham Shein, and Sholom Djuravinand attacked an Arab bus in retaliation for the murder of 6 Jews. Although no one was killed in the attack, he was tried, convicted and despite world wide protests, hung by the British. His last words were reportedly "Restraint (Havlaga) is fatal".

1938 July 5, EVIAN CONFERENCE (France) 

Was called by President Roosevelt, eleven days after Hitler annexed Austria, to discuss what to do about the Jewish refugees trying to escape Nazi Germany (It took three months to arrange). Delegates of thirty-two nations attended and decided they could do very little. The Dominican Republic and Costa Rica were the only countries willing to take in Jews fleeing Europe - and then only for payment of huge amounts of money.

1938 July 25, DEFINITION OF PROTECTIVE CUSTODY (Germany)

Was extended to "Persons … endanger the existence of …State" As such, anyone falling into the above category could be incarcerated without legal redress - particularly communists and Jews.

1938 July 25, FATHER CHARLES COUGHLIN (USA)

A Roman Catholic priest in Detroit, Coughlin began his weekly anti-Semitic broadcasts over national radio. He also formed the American Christian Front in New York City which carried out anti-Semitic street meetings and boycotted Jewish businesses.

1938 July 27, GERMANY

All Jewish street names were switched with German ones.

1938 July 30, HENRY FORD 

Accepted the Third Reich's medal of the Grand Cross of the German Eagle.

1938 August 1, EICHMANN ESTABLISHED THE CENTER FOR JEWISH EMIGRATION (Vienna, Austria) 

Eichmann (1906-1962) was so successful in forcing Jews to emigrate and confiscating their property that the Center later served as a model in Prague and in Berlin. Eichmann had joined the SS in 1933 and served in Dachau. His promotions were partly due to friendship with Ernest Kaltenbrunner who later commanded the Reich Security Head Office (R.S.H.A.) and partly due to his total association with Nazi ideals. Eichmann was compulsive about details and in preparation even learned some Yiddish and Hebrew. He eventually came to head Gestapo's Section IVB4. Eichmann's fanaticism in carrying out the "Final Solution" even came at the expense of the German war efforts. Eichmann was captured by Israeli agents in Argentina in May 1960 and put on trial in Jerusalem. A year later he was hung, his body cremated and his ashes strewn into the sea.

1938 August 8, MAUTHAUSEN (Austria)

Was established. It was the first Austrian concentration camp and one of the most notorious of all the camps. Run by the SS, it was originally for Austrian anti-Nazis taken under the "protective custody law" of 1936, but it soon contained Spanish Republicans, "enemies of the state" and Jews. Situated near a quarry, its victims were forced to carry heavy loads up over 150 steps. Most of the prisoners (Jews and non-Jews) were classified as "return not desired." A gas chamber was later installed and satellite camps were opened. Franz Ziereis served as its commandant from the beginning until he was captured and shot in May 1945. 122,767 out of an estimated 335,000 prisoners were murdered.

1938 August 13, L'Osservatore Romano

The Vatican's semiofficial newspaper, reported on the churches “protective” measures for Jews. “But if Christians were forbidden to force Jews to embrace the Catholic religion, to disturb their synagogues, their Sabbath and their festivals, the Jews, on the other hand, were forbidden to hold public office, civil or military; and this prohibition extended even to the children of converted Jews. The precautionary decrees concerned the professions, education, and business positions”.

1938 August 17, LAW REGARDING CHANGE OF NAMES (Germany)

Jewish men were required to add the name "Israel" and Jewish women, the name "Sarah" to all legal documents.

1938 August 18, - December, SWITZERLAND

Closed its borders to Jewish refugees who could not produce valid entry visas. Despite this, Paul Gruninger, the local police chief of St. Gallen (near Austria) permitted 3,600 Jews to enter Switzerland. In December 1938, he was suspended and charges were later brought against him. Found guilty of insubordination, he was sentenced a stiff fine and lost his position and pension. In 1971, he received recognition from Yad Vashem as one of the "Righteous Among the Nations".

1938 September 30, MUNICH AGREEMENT

Hitler convinced Chamberlain and Daladier, heads of the governments of England and France, that he wanted to protect German rights in Czechoslovakia's Sudetenland by annexing it, and that he had no further demands or plans for expansion. Chamberlain gave in, claiming that by doing so he had achieved "peace in our time". Within 2 days German troops began to occupy the Sudetenland.

1938 October, GERMANY

Forcibly deported 17,000 Jews to Poland. Poland refused them entry, forcing them to remain in No Man's Land. Germany continued to expel small groups, often using force to prevent them from reentering Germany after they were turned away at the Polish border by the Polish police.

1938 October 24, MALCOLM MACDONALD (Britain) 

In a cabinet meeting pressured the British government to abandon the thought of partition fearing that "We should forfeit the friendship of the Arab world." This had a direct influence on the final recommendations of the Woodhead commission.

1938 November 7, HERSCHEL GRYNSZPAN (Paris, France)

AA seventeen year old German refugee, assassinated Ernst vom Rath, the third secretary to the German embassy. Grynszpan's parents were among the Polish-Jewish refugees forcefully deported to the frontier a month earlier. Many hundreds died along the way. He was held without trial for 20 months until the German conquest of France. Eventually he fell into the hands of the Gestapo and was never heard from again The Nazi's used his action as the excuse for the onset of Kristallnach.

1938 November 9, KRISTALLNACHT (Germany) 

Goebbels called vom Rath's murder "a Jewish conspiracy" and a nation-wide pogrom was organized by the German government. Fifty thousand Jews were arrested and taken to concentration camps, five hundred synagogues were destroyed and the Jewish community of Germany was forced to pay one billion reichmarks ($400,000,000) for the damage.

1938 November 17, ANTI JEWISH LEGISLATION (Italy)

Was passed confiscating Jewish property and banning Jews from all positions in the civil service. All Jews who became citizens after January 1, 1919 were deprived of their citizenship and were commanded to leave Italy no later than March 1939.

1938 November 17, ITALY

The Supreme Council of the Fascist Party passed extensive anti-Jewish legislation. In addition, all Jewish officers were removed from the army including General Pugliese who was head of Naval construction. One officer, Colonel Segre, committed suicide in front of his men.

1938 November 28, APPEARANCE DECREE (Germany)

Jews were banned from certain districts and the hours of any public appearance were restricted.

1938 December, RUSSIA

By this time Yiddish was spoken by less than one quarter of the Russian Jews.

1938 December 2, Kindertransport (England) 

The first children's transport arrived in Harwich, Great Britain bringing about 200 children from a Jewish orphanage in Berlin. After a strong appeal by the British Jewish Refugee Committee, the British government had decided to allow in unaccompanied refugee children. Almost 10,000 Jewish children succeeded in getting to Britain. The last train arrived two days before the war started. A similar appeal to allow Jewish children into Eretz Israel was rejected.

1939 - 1941 AMERICAN JEWISH JOINT DISTRIBUTION COMMITTEE (JDC or JOINT)

And HICEM, the European affiliate of the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society, rescued approximately 30,000 European Jews. Despite this, or maybe because of this, the U.S. Office of censorship, in a memo dated March 1942, stated that they should be viewed with suspicion since they could be used by the Nazi's to bring in spies.

1939 January 1, GERMANY

As part of what was known as the compulsory aryanization process, all Jewish retail businesses were eliminated. All Jewish owned stocks were forbidden to be traded on the free market but had to be sold to a German competitor or association. This edict was signed just a month earlier by the Economic and Justice ministries. In addition, Jews were also forbidden to drive automobiles and their licenses had to be turned in.

1939 January 5, FELIX FRANKFURTER 

Was nominated by Roosevelt to the Supreme Court. Though a liberal once on the court, he took a more conservative view. Frankfurter served until 1962 when he suffered a stroke.

1939 January 5, KARAITES (Germany)

Were declared not Jewish by the Reich’s Department for Genealogical Research. Although it is estimated that some12,000 Karaites were saved bu this ruling, many more were murdered by Nazi Einsatzgruppe including at Baby Yar ( see September 29 1941).

1939 January 30, HITLER (Germany) 

Announced to the Reichstag "If international Jewry...should involve the European people in a new war...the result will (be) the destruction of the Jewish race in Europe."

1939 February 9, - June, WAGNER-ROGERS CHILD REFUGEE BILL (USA) 

Provoked by the events of Kristallnacht, the bill was proposed by New York Democratic Senator Robert F. Wagner, a German American, and Massachusetts Democratic Representative Edith Nourse Rogers. Its goal was to enable 20,000 German Jewish refugee children to enter the United States over a two-year period. The bill was toppled by the negative attitude of President Roosevelt, coupled with the anti- Semitism of members of Congress (especially Senator Robert Reynolds of North Carolina).

1939 March 3, CARDINAL PACELLI 

A long time semi-supporter of the German government, became Pope Pius XII. In October 1941 Harold Tittman, a U.S. delegate to the Vatican, asked the pope to condemn the atrocities against Jews; Pius replied that the Vatican wished to remain "neutral." In September 1942 the Popes Secretary of State,Luigi Maglione in a reply to a query stated "that the rumors about genocide could not be verified" that same year he commented that that the Vatican was "unable to denounce publicly particular atrocities". This policy of refusal to publicly condemn Nazi atrocities continued throughout the war. Albeit, after the war Pius called for forgiveness for all, including war criminals.

1939 March 15, GERMANY

Violated the Munich Agreement and marched into Prague.

1939 April 20, HITLER'S FIFTIETH BIRTHDAY 

All Catholic churches in Greater Germany hoisted the swastika in celebration.

1939 April 28, MAXIM LITVINOV (Russia)

The Russian foreign minister was dismissed. Litvinov had been a supporter of the League of Nations, He was a vocal opponent of Germany and, of course, a Jew. His dismissal paved the way for the pact between Germany and Russia and the invasion of Poland.

1939 May 5, HUNGARY

Two-thirds of Hungary's Jews who became citizens after 1914 were denaturalized. The bill was first presented by ex-Prime Minister Bella Imredy. Jews had to leave all government related positions before the end of the year.

1939 May 14, GERMAN LINER ST. LOUIS (Germany-Cuba-USA)

Set sail from Hamburg with 930 Jewish refugees with American quota permits and special permission to stay temporarily in Cuba. Cuban President Frederico Bru declared all but 30 of the permits worthless due to new regulations. Despite exhaustive efforts by the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC) and the depositing of half a million dollars in a Havana account, President Bru refused to budge. The U.S. also refused to take in any refugees and sent Coast Guard boats to prevent passengers from jumping overboard. After all efforts failed, The St. Louis was forced to return to Europe. The German Press gloated: "We say we don't want Jews while the democracies claim they are willing to receive them." A Gallup poll reported that 83 percent of Americans opposed the admission of a larger number of Jewish refugees.

1939 May 15, RAVENSBRUCK (Germany) 

A women's concentration camp was opened near Mecklenburg. The camp originally took in political prisoners and Gypsies and eventually resistance fighters and Jews. Many of the prisoners were used for "medical" experiments. The camp was active until April 1944 when the Red Cross negotiated the release of the survivors. Of the 132,000 women who were sent to Ravensbruck 92,000 died.

1939 May 17, WHITE PAPER (England)

Pressured by Arab Nationalists and landowners and concerned with preserving the British Empire, England decided to favor the Arabs. They issued a declaration limiting Jewish immigration to fifteen thousand per year for the next five years, thus ensuring a permanent Jewish minority. This sealed off the final escape route for European Jewry, resulting in illegal immigration and terrorist action against the British. The document was also known as the MacDonald White Paper, named for the Colonial Secretary. There were 6 white papers regarding the British Mandate issued between 1922 and 1939. Each of these policy position papers took its name from the person responsible for its issue.

1939 June 21, BOHEMIA AND MORAVIA

The status of the Jews was classified by Konstantin von Neurath, the Reich Protector, in agreement with German legislation. This was always the first step with any German takeover. After Jews were "appropriately" defined it was only a small step to confiscation of property and deportation. Out of the 90,000 Jews in the protectorate only 10,000 would survive.

1939 July, "T4" ADVANCED EUTHANASIA PROGRAM

Was set up under Hitler’s orders by Hans Heinrich Lammers(1879-1962) and Phillip Bouhler(1899 – 1945). It was named for the address of Dr. Bouhler’s office in the Reich Chancellery, at 4 Tiergartenstrasse. He was assisted by Hitler’s personal physician Dr. Karl Brandt(1904 – 1948), and Dr. Victor Brack(1904-1948) who became Bouhler’s deputy. Although the Nazis had begun Euthanasia programs among the general German population earlier, the scope of T4 extended its practice of killing the “racially valueless’ to include the incurably sick and insane. Although officially the program ran between September 1939 to August 1941 in reality it continued until the end of the war. It is estimated that between 93,500 and 200,000 people were exterminated. Experiments were made with various gases and delivery installations (gas chambers). It was Bouhler's idea to disguise the gas chambers as showers as not to cause panic. The expertise gained , much of the personnel and equipment were later transferred to other camps for the "Final Solution".

1939 July 27, CENTRAL OFFICE FOR JEWISH EMIGRATION (Prague)

Was opened by Adolph Eichmann. As in other offices of this kind, Jews were forced to register for emigration,and had to turn over their property as part of a "Jewish emigration tax." For the next 15 months until emigration was banned 26,629 Jews succeeded in fleeing.

1939 August 24, GERMAN-RUSSIAN PACT

Joachim Von Ribbentrop, the German Foreign minister and Vyacheslav Molotov, Stalin's Commissar for Foreign Affairs, signed a non aggression agreement for the division of Eastern Europe. Poland was to be divided. Lithuania was to be under German Rule while Estonia Latvia and Finland were be under Russian rule. This paved the way for Hitler’s invasion.

1939 September 1, GERMANY ATTACKED POLAND

Beginning of World War II. Out of the 3,351,000 Jews in Poland, 2,042,000 came under Nazi rule while 1,309,000 came under Soviet rule. Within two days the British and French declared war on Germany. During the war a million and a half Jews fought on the side of allied forces: 555,000 for the USA; 500,000 for the Soviet Union; 116,000 for Great Britain (26,000 from Palestine and 90,000 from the British Commonwealth); and another 243,000 for other European nations.

1939 September 3, CARDINAL THEODORE INNITZER (Rome, Italy) 

Suggested to Pius XII that all religious pupils be greeted with "Heil Hitler, praised be Jesus Christ."

1939 September 6, HAGANAH (Eretz Israel)

Set up its first central command. Its first head was Yaakov Dori (Dostrovsky).

1939 September 8, GERMAN TROOPS OCCUPIED LODZ (Poland)

With over 230,000 Jews living there. By the time the Russians arrived on January 19, 1945 they found less then 10,000 Jews left.

1939 September 9, BEDZIN (Poland)

In a special operation, the Einsatzkommandos (The Nazi Special action groups which served as Mobile Killing Units) began to burn down synagogues. In Bedzin, the synagogue was set on fire and fire fighters were not allowed to put it out. The fire extended to the Jewish area and the Jews were not allowed out of their houses. Hundreds burned to death.

1939 September 12, ERETZ- ISRAEL

Within two weeks of the outbreak of the war 135,000 people offered to volunteer for the British army. The British were reluctant, fearing that their training would eventually be used against them.

1939 September 17, RUSSIA

Invaded Poland. Within ten days the Polish army surrendered. Tens of thousands of Jews fled from teh German zone to the Soviet zone.

1939 September 21, REINHARD HEYDRICH (Germany)

Invited 15 people (including Eichmann) to a conference to determine policy regarding the Jews and the Einsatzgruppen (special action groups). Their resolution (although it didn't go into details) made use of the words "First steps in the Final Solution". Heydrich ordered the segregation of all Jews into ghettos and the formation of local Jewish councils (Judenrats). The Judenrat was in Heydrich's words" made fully responsible for the exact and punctual implementation of all instructions released or yet to be released." These councils or Judenrats were designed to force the Jews to be part of the system of their own destruction by letting them think that they could save some Jews by agreeing to forget about some of the rest. Some people considered the Judenrat as collaborators and others viewed them as continuing pre-war communal work. There were 128 Judenrats in Nazi occupied Poland (or what was known as the General Government). Some heads of the Judenrats cooperated with the Nazis hoping to save the remainder. Others (about 40 of them) preferred to commit suicide rather than turn over Jews for deportation.

1939 September 23, GERMANY

Jews were forbidden to own radios.

1939 September 27 - 28, POLAND SURRENDERED 

Warsaw fell. Poland's capital, home to 350,000 Jews, surrendered to German troops after a three-week siege. Out of over 90,000 Polish Jewish soldiers, 32,216 were killed and another 61,000 captured, most of them dying in captivity. The first stage of surrender was the forcing of all Jews into large cities and the establishing of local Jewish councils. The second stage was ghettoization (May 1940) - total separation from other populations, and the final stage (December 1941) was annihilation. At the outbreak of the war there were 3.3 million Jews in Poland. Less than 300,000 would survive.

1939 September 28, GERMANY AND RUSSIA DIVIDED POLAND

Russia absorbed the Baltic States. Over the next 6 months, these would include Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, and parts of Bessarabia, Galicia, Belarus, and Bukovina. This added 2,170,000 Jews to Russia's population of 3 million Jews. Russia would give some of the Baltic States only a vague semblance of independence which created resentment and prepared the way for their eventual welcoming of the Germans in June 1941. Around 1 million Jews were later killed in those areas, many of them by local special police who were active participants in their murder.

1939 October, DR. EMMANUEL RINGELBLUM (1900-1944) (Warsaw, Poland) 

Chief historian of the Warsaw Ghetto, laid the foundations of the clandestine operation code-named Oneg Shabbat (Hebrew for "Sabbath Delight") - the Jewish underground archives in the Warsaw Ghetto. Several dozen writers, teachers, rabbis, and historians took part in an effort to document ghetto life that was led by Ringelbaum. The archives became one of the key resources for information on Polish Jewry under Nazi occupation and were kept up on the Aryan side even after the ghetto's destruction in April 1943. His family's hiding place was discovered by the Gestapo and they were killed on March 7, 1944.

1939 October 8 - 12, GERMAN PARTITION OF POLAND

Hitler divided Poland into various districts (gauen). He incorporated into Germany two districts: Danzig (Gdansk) and what became known as the Wartheland which included the provinces that had been lost in the First World War plus the Lodz district. All Jews were ordered to leave the Wartheland except for those in the Lodz ghetto where Reich Jews would also be interned. Before the war, Lodz had 233,000 Jews - one-third of the population. The district had 390,000 Jews. The ghetto was totally liquidated by the end of August 1944.

1939 October 10, POLAND

The General Government was set up in Nazi occupied Poland. There were four districts: Warsaw, Lublin, Radom, and Cracow. Eventually Galicia was added as well, with a total Jewish population of over 2 million. Hans Frank (1900-1946), a veteran Nazi politician and lawyer, was appointed governor general. Frank initiated and instituted the anti-Jewish decrees in occupied Poland and was responsible for encouraging the mass murder of Polish Jewry. He was later convicted and executed at the Nuremberg trials.

1939 October 12, VIENNA (AUSTRIA) AND CZECHOSLOVAKIA

First deportation of Jews to Poland.

1939 October 27, POLAND

Forced labor was instituted by Hans Frank for all Jews between the ages of 14 through 60.

1939 November, VAAD HATZALA, OR RESCUE COMMITTEE (New York City, USA)

Was formed by Agudat HaRabbanim, with Rabbi Eliezer Silver as president. They raised more than $5 million, and succeeded in sending 2,000 emergency visas (over 500 were sent to Shanghai.) They used an exemption from the U.S. immigration quotas which allowed entry to ministers or religious students. Although many of their constituents were already helped by the JDC, they claimed that since the rabbis and students constituted the spiritual elite of the Jewish people, they deserved priority.

1939 November, JEWISH MILITARY ORGANIZATION (ZZW) (Poland)

Major Henry Iwanski, a Polish officer, met with Lieut. David Appelbaum, Henryk Lifszyc, Kalman Mendelson and Yehuda Bialoskara, all former Jewish officers of the defeated Polish army and members of the Betar-affiliated Brit Hachayal. They decided to create an underground organization which was first called Swit. It soon developed into the ZZW (Zydowski Zwiazek Wojskowy) led by Appelbaum to fight the Germans and received their first weapons. The ZZW was mostly comprised of Zionist revisionists and Betarim - followers of Ze'ev Jabotinsky. The ZZW played a vital role in the Warsaw ghetto uprising as well as in the forests as partisans.

1939 November 13, - 1941 July 30, GENERAL KAZIMIERZ SOSNKOWSKI (Poland)

Headed the émigré Polish government. Sosnkowski was a notorious anti-Semite who imprisoned 10,000 Jewish soldiers during the Russian-Polish war.

1939 November 28, FIRST GHETTO (Poland) 

Was set up under the General Government in Piotrkow Trybunalski, about 16 miles (26 km) south of Lodz.

1939 December 11, BRITAIN CALLED FOR VOLUNTEERS (Eretz Israel)

To join the British army. Most of the Jews boycotted the call since the British refused to allow Jews to serve in combat units.

1939 December 21, DEPARTMENT IV OF THE RSHA (Germany)

Was established by Reinhard Heydrich as the center for handling the evacuation of Jews from the Eastern territories. Himmler and Heydrich named Adolf Eichmann to head this department.

1939 December 30, THE URANUS

Three river boats with 1,210 Jewish refugees aboard from Vienna and Prague, were stopped on the Danube near Iron Gates gorge and the town of Kladovo on the Romanian-Yugoslavian border. The British government had protested to the Yugoslavian government at the intention of the refugees to get to Eretz-Israel. Two hundred children received travel permits, the rest were turned back.

1939 December 31, ERETZ ISRAEL

During the year 1939, 34 immigrant boats tried to break through the British blockade. Seventeen new settlements were founded and more than 100 Jews were killed by Arab terror.

- See more at: http://www.jewishhistory.org.il/history.php?startyear=1930&endyear=1939#sthash.MeShF6s0.dpuf
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